Элективный курс "Страноведение Великобритании и США"

STATE AND POLITICAL SYSTEM OF THE UK

United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy^[1]*. This means that it has a hereditary monarch (a king/queen) as its Head of State, but essentially the powers of the monarch are ceremonial and he/she can only reign with the support of Parliament^[2]**. Among the official functions of the King/Queen are the following:

• to appoint the Prime Minister at the end of the election (normally the leader of the party that has the majority in the House of Commons);
• to summon, prorogue and dissolve the Parliament;
• to enact legislation; to give his/her Royal Assent to bills when they’ve been passed by both Houses;
• to declare war/make peace;
• to recognize foreign states and governments;
• to conclude treaties;
• to annex/cede territories;
• to be the head of judiciary (all the courts of the land are the King’s/Queen’s courts; all the trials are carried out in the King’s/Queen’s name);
• to be the Commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces;
• to be the “supreme governor” of the established Church of England;
• to make formal appointments to the most important offices of the state in the Armed Forces and churches;
• to confer peerages, knighthoods and other honours;
•  to make formal approvals to decisions of the Government at the meetings of the Privy Council;
• to be the King/Queen of 16 former colonies, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, represented by the governor; to be the Head of the Commonwealth.

Important symbolic roles of the King/Queen are to preserve the unity of the nation, historical traditions and continuity; to be the Defender of the Faith (only Anglicans can succeed to the throne^[3]***); to be the Spiritual head of state.

UK Constitution is uncodified (unwritten) consisting of historic documents such as the Magna Carta^[4]****, the Petition of Right, and the Bill of Rights (1689); statutes, judicial precedents (common law), and custom. The constitution is flexible and may be changed by an act of Parliament.

There are three branches of power in UK:

1. the executive power (exercised by the government);
2. the legislative power (vested in both the government and the parliament);
3. the judicial power (exercised by the system of courts).

There is no strict separation of powers of these three arms of government (in contrast to the United States). So, for example:

1) all Ministers in the government are members of the legislature;

2) some very senior judges sit in the upper house of the parliament.

1. The UK Parliament

The Parliament of the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the UK and British overseas territories. It alone has parliamentary sovereignty, conferring its ultimate power over all other political bodies in the UK and its territories. At its head is the Sovereign.

The British Parliament is often called Westminster because it is housed in a distinguished building in central London called the Palace of Westminster.

The functions of Parliament are:

1. to pass laws;
2. to provide, by voting for taxation, the means of carrying on the work of government;
3. to scrutinize government policy and administration, including proposals for expenditure;
4. to debate the major issues of the day.

The British Parliament like most in the world is bicameral, that is there are two houses or chambers – the House of Commons (HC) and the House of Lords (HL). The Sovereign is the third component of Parliament. In theory, supreme legislative power is vested in the King/Queen-in-Parliament; in practice in modern times, real power is vested in the HC; the Sovereign generally acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and the powers of the HL are limited.

The two Houses meet in separate chambers in the Palace of Westminster.

1.1. The House of Commons is the lower chamber.

• The House of Commons is chaired by the Speaker who is elected by Members of Parliament (MPs). The post is non-political and indeed, by convention, the political parties do not contest the Parliamentary constituency held by the Speaker. He helps to keep order in the House.
• The House of Commons currently has 646 seats (the number varies slightly from time to time to reflect population change). This is a large legislature by international standards. For instance, the House of Representatives in the USA has 435 seats.
• Each seat in the House of Commons represents a geographical constituency. Typically a constituency would have around 60,000-80,000 voters, depending mainly on whether it is an urban or rural constituency.
•  The House of Commons is a democratically elected chamber with elections to it held at least every 5 years (a General Election, that is, a nationwide election for all 646 seats is held when the Prime Minister calls it, but the election cannot be more than five years after the last one and it is usually around four years after the last one).

The House of Commons Chamber was rebuilt to a design by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott after it was damaged during the Second World War. The new Chamber was built in a style that was in keeping with the Chamber that had been destroyed. The layout of the Chamber consists of two sets of green benches that are opposite to each other. There is a table in the middle and the Speaker’s Chair at one end. This arrangement means that the Government and Opposition MPs sit facing each other. Government ministers sit on the front bench on the Government side. They are therefore known as Government frontbenchers. Members of the House who belong to the same party as the Government but who do not hold a Government post are known as Government back-benchers. The Official Opposition is divided in the same way.

The Public Gallery is open whenever the House of Commons is sitting. Members of Parliament can obtain a small number of tickets for their constituents to visit the Public Gallery. Non-ticket holders may form a queue behind the notice for the House of Commons at St Stephen’s Entrance but a wait of several hours may be necessary at times.

1.2. The House of Lords is the upper chamber.

• The House of Lords is presided over by Lord Speaker. The office is analogous to the Speaker of the House of Commons: the Lord Speaker is "appointed" by the members of the House of Lords and is expected to be politically impartial. Until July 2006, the role of presiding officer in the House of Lords was undertaken by the Lord Chancellor. Under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the position of the Speaker of the House of Lords (as it is termed in the Act) became a separate office, allowing the position to be held by someone other than the Lord Chancellor. Nowadays Lord Speaker of the House of Lords (2009) is Baroness Hayman.
• There is no fixed number of members in the House of Lords, but currently there are 740 members (July 2009). Historically most members of the House of Lords have been what are called hereditary peers. This means that years ago a king or queen nominated a member of the aristocracy to be a member of the House and, since then, the right to sit in the House has passed through the family from generation to generation^[5]*. Clearly this is totally undemocratic and the current Labour Government has now abolished the right of all but 92 of these hereditary peers to sit in the House. Almost all the other members of today’s House of Lords are what are called life peers. This means that they have been chosen by the Queen, on the advice of the Government, to sit in the House for as long as they live, but afterwards no member of their family has the right to sit in the House. There is no fixed number of life peers, but the current number is 608 (July 2009). Many are former senior politicians. Others are very distinguished figures in fields such as education, health and social policy. A small number of other members – 26 – are Lords Spirituals – Archbishops and Bishops of the Church of England.

The House of Lords Chamber is arranged in the following way: it has a throne (instead of the Speaker’s chair in the HC) with a canopy and woolsack (sources of Britain’s prosperity) where the Lord Speaker sits. The Chamber is divided into two sides separated by a green line – the right side (the governmental one) and the left side (the opposition’s one). It contains the cross benches as well. The benches are red leather. If the Lord Speaker decides to address the Chamber as an ordinary he leaves the woolsack.

1.3. The passage of legislation 

In the British political system, almost all legislation is proposed by the Government and much of it comes from promises made in the manifesto of the relevant political party at the last election. At the beginning of each annual session of the Parliament, the main Bills to be considered are announced by the monarch in a speech opening that year’s session of Parliament. The other type of bills, known as a Private Member’s Bill, is often less successful. A Private Member’s Bill is sponsored by an individual MP rather than by the Government. He or she will promote the Bill as an individual and will therefore not be able to rely on the assistance of the party Whips in gaining a majority in the House of Commons.

All legislation has to be approved by both Houses of Parliament.

In the Houses of Parliament, a proposed piece of legislation called a Bill goes through the following stages:

1) the House of Commons stage:

• First reading (the Bill is introduced with simply a reading by a Minister of the long title of the Bill);
• Second Reading (the general principles of the Bill are debated by all the members of the House);
• Committee Stage (each clause of the Bill is examined in detail by a small specially chosen group of members of the House);
• Report Stage (the changes made to the Bill in the Committee are reported to and debated by the whole House which is invited to approve the changes);
• Third Reading (the final version of the Bill is approved by the whole House);

2) the House of Lords stage:

• The House of Lords passes the Bill. The House of Lords has much more limited legislative powers than the House of Commons. Money Bills can only be initiated in the Commons and the Lords can only reject legislation from the Commons for one year;

3) the Royal Assent:

• Once both Houses of Parliament have passed a Bill, then it goes to the monarch for the Royal Assent. No monarchs since 16th century have signed Bills themselves. Queen Anne, in 1707, became the last monarch to reject a Bill, while Queen Victoria was the last to give the Royal Assent in person in 1854.

1.4. Some distinguishing features of the British Parliamentary system 

• Much of the work of Parliament is done in Committees rather than on the floor of the chamber. The House of Commons has two types of committee: Select Committees which are appointed for the lifetime of a Parliament and “shadow” the work of a Government Department, conduct investigations, and issue reports; General Committees (previously known as Standing Committees) which are temporary bodies formed to examine the detail of a particular piece of legislation and consider amendments to the Bill. The House of Lords only has Select Committees (it does not need Standing Committees because the details of Bills are considered on the floor of the chamber). Finally there are some Joint Committees of the Commons and the Lords.
• Discussion and debate involves quite a confrontational approach. This is reflected in the physical shape of the chambers. Whereas most legislatures are semi-circular, both the House of Commons and the House of Lords are rectangular with the Government party sitting on one side and the Opposition parties sitting on the other side. The House of Lords alone has cross-benches for independent peers.
• There is a Prime Minister’s Question Time for 30 minutes every Wednesday. Questions can be asked on any subject.
• The press is present all the time and live audio and visual broadcasting can take place at any time.
• Most of the parties, large and small, have important officials, chosen from among their MPs, known as Whips. Within each of the main parties there is a Chief Whip, together with 10-12 Whips. They have a variety of functions, the most important of which is maintaining discipline. Although MPs in the House of Commons can theoretically vote as they wish, they are generally expected to vote with their party.Every week a Whip sends the MPs a notice, also known as The Whip, giving the order of business for the following week. Each matter to be discussed will be underlined once, twice or three times according to its importance. If it is underlined once then it is not a particularly important issue and attendance is merely requested. A rather more important matter will be underlined twice meaning thatattendance is particularly requested. When the two largest parties have roughly similar numbers of MPs then a Member who wishes to be absent from a ‘two line whip’ will ‘pair’ with an MP from the opposing side. This ‘pairing’ is recorded by the Whips and as both sides would be losing a vote then neither would gain an advantage. Attendance is essential when an item is underlined three times (a ‘three-line whip’).In the case of a three-line whip, a Member will normally be expected to attend unless he or she is either seriously ill or has to attend to some extremely urgent business elsewhere and has permission from the Whips’ office to be absent.
• A clear and independent record of all the proceedings in the Chamber of the House of Commons and its Standing Committees can be found in Hansard — the Official Report. (A separate Hansard covers the House of Lords). Hansard is named after the family who used to publish the reports in the 19th century. Regular programmes featuring Parliament can be heard on Radio 4. Continuous and unedited coverage of proceedings can be found on the BBC Parliament channel.
• Debates in the House of Commons are conducted by certain rules. Speakers address all their comments to the chairman (the Speaker), not to each other. If tempers become heated, it is the chairman who will step in to control the debate, saying “Order, Order”. Whenever a Member finishes speaking it is the Speaker who decides who should speak next. At the end of each speech, a number of hopeful MPs who want to speak next will rise to their feet to try to ‘catch the Speaker’s eye’. In fact, this is often unnecessary, as the Speaker will usually know in advance who particularly wants to speak. MPs speak from wherever they have been sitting and not from a rostrum, although front-bench members usually stand at one of the despatch boxes on the Table of the House. MPs may not read their speeches, although they may refresh their memories by referring to notes. If one Member, in the course of a speech, wishes to refer to another Member, he or she must not mention their name, but should instead refer to “The Honourable Member for...” followed by the name of the constituency.
• At the end of the debate the occupant of the Chair 'puts the question' whether to agree with the motion or not. Votes may be taken by acclamation - the norm for uncontroversial business (this is referred to as “voice vote” and means MPs shouting “Aye” if they agree or “No” if they disagree). However, if MPs or Peers wish to 'divide the House', which generally happens on more controversial votes, then a division is held. Members have to file through one of two division lobbies, one for the Ayes to vote yes, one for the Noes to vote no. The numbers going through each lobby are counted and the result given (in the Commons) to the Speaker by the 'tellers' (MPs appointed to supervise the vote). The Speaker formally announces the result and adds “So the ‘Ayes’ (or ‘Noes’) have it”.In a tied vote the Speaker gives a casting vote, according to defined principles rather than on the merits of the question. The House of Lords uses a similar system; instead of ‘Ayes’ and ‘Noes’, however, the Lords will be divided into ‘Contents’ (those voting ‘Yes’) and ‘Not-Contents’ (those voting ‘No’), Lord Speaker does not have a casting vote.
• The life of a Parliament is divided into sessions. Each usually lasts for one year - normally ending in October or November when Parliament is 'prorogued', followed shortly by the State Opening of Parliament, marking the beginning of the new session. The two Houses do not normally sit at weekends, at Christmas, Easter and the late Spring Bank Holiday. In the Commons there is also a 'half-term' break of a week in February. The traditional long summer break ('recess'), starts in late July and finishes in October.

1.5. Political parties 

The party system is an essential element of the constitution. The present system depends upon the existence of organized political parties, each of which presents its policies to the electorate for approval. The parties are not registered or recognized in law, but in practice most candidates in elections belong to one of the major parties.

There are three major political parties in the British system of politics:

• The Labour Party (often called New Labour) – the centre-Left party currently led by Gordon Brown. The party emerged in the last decade of the 19th century.

The Labour Party traditionally was in favour of socialist policies such as public ownership of key industries, government intervention in the economy, redistribution of wealth, increased rights for workers and trade unions, and a belief in the welfare state and publicly funded healthcare and education.

Since the mid-1980s party has moved away from its traditional socialists position towards what is often described as “Third way” adopting some Thatcherite and free market policies after losing in four consecutive general elections.

The current national Labour government won a landslide 179 seat majority in the 1997 general election under the leadership of Tony Blair, its first general election victory since October 1974 and the first general election since 1970 in which it had exceeded 40% of the popular vote. In their foreign policy Labourists try to balance the European and Atlantic vectors – to put Britain "at the heart of Europe" whilst attempting to maintain military and diplomatic links to the United States. While in power the party supported the US in their war in Iraq and other conflicts; although presently British involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan is widely criticised inside the party as well as outside. Labour government under Tony Blair introduced substantial market-based reforms in the education and health sectors; introduced student tuition fees; sought to reduce certain categories of welfare payments, and introduced tough anti-terrorism and identity card legislation. It also carried out a constitutional reform which involved devolution in Scotland and Wales. Tony Blair's contribution towards assisting the Northern Ireland Peace Process by helping to negotiate the Good Friday Agreement (after 30 years of conflict) was widely recognised. Both Blair's and Brown's governments advocated green policies: reduction of carbon dioxide emissions and an increase in renewable energy use.

• The Conservative Party (frequently called the Tories) – the centre-Right party currently led by David Cameron. The origins of the Conservative Party go back to the 18th century.

Since the election of David Cameron as leader, party policy has increasingly focused on “social” and “quality of life” issues such as the environment, the simplifying and improvement of government services (most prominently the National Health Service and the Home Office), and schools. The party has taken a stance on fixing what Cameron has called the “broken” British society.

Conservatives opposed devolution to Wales and Scotland in the 1997 referendums, whilst supporting it for Northern Ireland. However, with a Scottish parliament and Welsh assembly now in existence, the Conservatives have pledged not to reverse these reforms. Conservatives are the most Eurosceptic of the three main parties, favouring close ties with the United States and similarly aligned nations such as Canada, Australia and Japan. One concrete economic policy of recent years has been opposition to the European single currency. The Conservative Party have suggested an expansion of the British Army, believing that it is too small for current operations.

• The Liberal Democratic Party (known as the Lib Dems) – the centrist, libertarian party currently led by Menzies Campbell. The Lib Dems was formed in 1988 when the Liberal Party which traced its origins to the 18th century, merged with Social Democratic Party (formed in 1981).

Promoting social liberalism, Lib Dems seek to minimize state intervention in personal affairs, criticizing it as that of a “nanny state”. Instead the Lib Dems supports the welfare state.

The party supports multilateral foreign policy; they opposed British participation in the War in Iraq and support withdrawal of troops from the country, and are the most pro-EU of the three main parties in the UK. The party has strong environmentalist values – favouring renewable energy and commitments to deeper cuts in greenhouse gas emissions. Since their foundation, Lib Dems have advocated electoral reform to use proportional representation (a system which would increase their number of seats dramatically), replacing the House of Lords with an elected chamber, and cutting government departments.

In addition to these three main parties, there are some smaller UK parties (Democratic Unionist (9), Respect – The Unity Coalition (1), Social Democratic & Labour Party (3), Health Concern (1), and some parties which operate specifically in Scotland (the Scottish National Party founded in 1934), Wales (Plaid Cymru founded in 1925) and Northern Ireland (the Ulster Unionist Party formed in the early part of the 20th century; the Democratic Unionist Party founded in 1971; the Social Democratic and Labour Party founded in 1970; Sinn Fein).

Each political party chooses its leader in a different way, but all involve all the Members of Parliament of the party and all the individual members of that party. The leader of the political party with the largest number of members in the House of Commons becomes the Prime Minster (formally at the invitation of the monarch).

In the British political system, there is a broad consensus between the major parties on:

• the rule of law;
• the free market economy;
• the national health service;
• UK membership of European Union and NATO.

The main differences between the political parties concern:

• how to tackle poverty and inequality;
• the levels and forms of taxation;
• the extent of state intervention in the economy;
• the balance between collective rights and individual rights.
• devolution of power

2. The UK Government

2.1. The Prime Minister

Constitutionally the Head of State is the monarch who is a hereditary member of the Royal Family. However, the monarch has very few formal powers and stays above party politics.

So, in practice, the most important person in the British political system is the Prime Minister^[6]*. The Prime Minister chooses the ministers who run Government departments and chairs the Cabinet – the collection of the most senior of those Ministers. The Prime Minister is, by tradition, First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for the Civil Service. The PM’s unique position of authority derives from majority support in the HC and from the power to appoint and dismiss ministers. By modern convention, the Prime Minister always sits in the House of Commons.

The PM presides over the Cabinet, is responsible for the allocation of functions among ministers and informs the Queen at regular meetings of the general business of the Government.

The Prime Minister’s other responsibilities include recommending a number of appointments to the Queen. These include:

1. Church of England archbishops, bishops and deans and other Church appointments;
2. senior judges, such as the Lord Chief Justice;
3. Privy Counselors;
4. Lord-Lieutenants.

2.2. Government Departments

Government departments are staffed by politically neutral civil servants and are headed by ministers. They are the main instruments for implementing government policy when Parliament has passed the necessary legislation, and for advising ministers.

The most important departments are called:

• The Treasury (in most countries, this would be called the Ministry of Finance; it is responsible for the raising of all taxes and the control of all government expenditure plus the general management of the economy; the Head of the Treasury is called the Chancellor of the Exchequer).
• The Home Office (in most countries, this would be called the Ministry of the Interior; it is responsible for criminal matters, policing, and immigration; the Head of the Home Office is called the Home Secretary).
• The Foreign and Commonwealth Office (in most countries, this would be called the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; it is responsible for all international relationships, especially the membership of the European Union; the Head of the Foreign Office is called the Foreign Secretary).

Many other UK Government Departments cover subjects such as education, health, transport, industry, and justice. However, in UK there are also departments for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.

2.3. Government Ministers

All Government Departments are run by Ministers who are either Members of the House of Commons or Members of the House of Lords. There are three classes of Ministers:

• Secretary of State (this is usually the head of a Department).
• Minister of State (this is a middle-ranking minister).
• Under-Secretary of State (this is the most junior class of minister).

The Prime Minster and all the Secretaries of State together comprise an executive body of government called the Cabinet. The numbers often fluctuate between 21 and 24. The Cabinet meets usually once a week. Cabinet meetings are confidential and all members are bound by any decision that it takes in a practice called collective responsibility. An extensive system of Cabinet Committees considers matters either before they go to Cabinet or (more usually) instead of them going to Cabinet.

Although all Ministers are appointed by the Prime Minster and report to him, ultimately all Ministers are accountable to Parliament:

• About once a month, they have to face questions in the House of Commons about the work of the Department.
• Each government department has a special committee of the House of Commons which watches the work of that Department.
• Any government initiative or important statement concerning a Department must be the subject of an appearance in the House of Commons by a minister from that Department.

2.4. The civil service

Each Secretary of State is able to appoint a couple of political advisers formally known as Special Advisers to serve him or her. They have no line management responsibilities in respect of the staff of the Department. Besides this tiny number of Special Advisers, Government Departments are run by civil servants who are recruited in a totally open manner and serve governments of any political parties. The independence and professionalism of the British civil service is a fundamental feature of the British political system.

2.5. Devolved government

The UK has a devolved system of government, but this is categorically not a system of federal government such as in the United State or Australia, partly because less than a fifth of the citizens of the UK are covered by the three bodies in question and partly because the three bodies themselves have different powers from one another.

The three devolved administrations are:

• The Scottish Parliament (came into operation in May 1999 and covers the 5 million citizens of Scotland. It has 129 members elected for four-year terms. It has legislative powers over those matters not reserved to the UK Parliament and it has limited tax-raising powers).
• The Welsh Assembly (came into operation in May 1999 and covers the 3 million citizens of Wales. It has 60 members elected for four-year terms. Since 2006, the Assembly has powers to legislate in some areas, though still subject to the veto of the Westminster Parliament. The Assembly has no tax-varying powers. The Welsh Assembly, therefore, has less power than either the Scottish Parliament or the Northern Ireland Assembly because unlike Scotland and Northern Ireland Wales does not have a separate legal system from England).
• The Northern Ireland Assembly (came into operation in May 2007 and covers the 1,5 million citizens of Northern Ireland. It has 108 members. It has legislative powers over those matters not reserved to the UK Parliament, but it has no tax-raising powers).

3. The UK Judiciary

The British judicial branch is extremely complex. Unlike most countries which operate a single system of law, the UK operates three separate legal systems: one for England and Wales, one for Scotland, and one for Northern Ireland. Although bound by similar principles, these systems differ in form and the manner of operation.

3.1. The Court System of England and Wales

Her Majesty’s Courts of Justice of England and Wales are the civil and criminal courts responsible for the administration of justice in England and Wales; they are constituted and governed by the Law of England and Wales and are subordinate to the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

3.1.1. Supreme Court of the United Kingdom

The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 created a new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom to take over the judicial functions of the House of Lords and devolution cases from the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. It started work on 1 October 2009. The court is the supreme court (court of last resort, highest appellate court) in all matters under English law, Welsh law (to the extent that the National Assembly for Wales makes laws for Wales that differ from those in England) and Northern Irish law. It does not have authority over criminal cases in Scotland. The Court's focus is on cases which raise points of law of general public importance. Like the former Appellate Committee of the House of Lords, appeals from many fields of law are likely to be selected for hearing — including  commercial disputes, family matters, judicial review claims against public authorities and issues under the Human Rights Act 1998. The Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (Law Lords) who held office on 1 October 2009 were the first justices of the 12-member Supreme Court.

3.1.2. Senior Courts of England and Wales

• Court of Appeal
• High Court of Justice
• Crown Court

3.1.2.1. Court of Appeal

The Court of Appeal of England and Wales is the second most senior court in the English legal system, with only the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords above it.

The Court is divided into two Divisions: the Civil Division and the Criminal Division. The Master of the Rolls presides over the Civil Division, while the Lord Chief Justice does the same in the Criminal Division. The other permanent judges of the Court of Appeal are known as Lords Justices of Appeal.

The Civil Division hears appeals from the High Court and County Court and certain superior tribunals, while the Criminal Division may only hear appeals from the Crown Court connected with a trial on indictment (i.e. trial by judge and jury; the jury is only present if the defendant pleads “not guilty”).

3.1.2.2. High Court

The High Court of Justice functions as a civil court of first instance, dealing with all cases of high value and importance, and also has a supervisory jurisdiction over all subordinate courts and tribunals.

The High Court consists of three main divisions: the Queen’s Bench Division, the Chancery Division and the Family Division. These divisions of the High Court are not separate courts. Although particular kinds of cases will be assigned to each division depending on their subject matter, each division may exercise the jurisdiction of the High Court.

Queen’s Bench Division

The Queen’s Bench Division – or King’s Bench Division when the monarch is a King – has two roles. It hears a wide range of contract law and personal injury/general negligence cases, but also has special responsibility as a supervisory court. Queen’s Bench Division judges also sit in the Crown Court, hearing criminal cases (as do Circuit judges and Recorders).

Chancery Division

The Chancery Division deals with business law, trusts law, probate law, and land law in relation to issues of equity. In addition it has specialist courts within it which deal with intellectual property and company law. All tax appeals are assigned to the Chancery Division.

Family Division

The Family Division deals with matters such as divorce, children, probate and medical treatment.

3.1.2.3. Crown Court

The Crown Court of England and Wales is a criminal court of both original and appellate jurisdiction which in addition handles a limited amount of civil business both at first instance and on appeal.

The Crown Court is the only court in England and Wales that has the jurisdiction to try cases on indictment (i.e. trial by judge and jury) and when exercising such a role it is a superior court in that its judgments cannot be reviewed by the Queen’s Bench Division of the High Court. It also hears appeals against decisions made in the magistrates’ courts and deals with cases sent from magistrates’ courts for sentence.

The Judges who normally sit in the Crown Court are High Court Judges, Circuit Judges and Recorders. Circuit Judges are the same Judges as sit in the County Court. Recorders are Barristers or Solicitors in private practice, who sit part time as Judges. The most serious cases (treason, murder, rape etc.) are allocated to High Court Judges and Senior Circuit Judges. The remainder are dealt with by Circuit Judges and Recorders, although Recorders will normally handle less serious work than Circuit Judges. The allocation is conducted according to directions given by the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales.

3.1.3. Subordinate courts

3.1.3.1. County Courts

County Courts are statutory courts with a purely civil jurisdiction. They are presided over by either a District or Circuit Judge and, except in a small minority of cases such as civil actions against the Police, the judge sits alone as trier of fact and law without assistance from a jury. County Courts are local courts in the sense that each one has an area over which certain kinds of jurisdiction – mostly actions concerning land – are exercised.

The County Court is the workhorse of the civil justice system in England and Wales. There are 218 county courts which deal with the majority of civil cases, as well as some family and bankruptcy hearings. A large number of cases come before the county courts and it is here that all but the most complicated civil law proceedings are handled. The County Courts generally hear matters with a financial value of £50,000 or under.

3.1.3.2. Magistrates’ Courts

A Magistrates’ Court, or court of petty sessions, is the lowest level of court in England and Wales and many other common law jurisdictions. Magistrates’ Courts are presided over by a tribunal consisting of two or more (most commonly three) lay magistrates or Justices of the Peace, or a legally-trained District Judge, sitting in each local justice area, and dispensing summary justice, under powers usually limited by statute. The tribunal that presides over the Court is often referred to simply as the Bench.

The magistrates' courts are a key part of the criminal justice system – virtually all criminal cases start in a magistrates' court and over 95% of cases are also completed here. In addition, magistrates’ courts deal with many civil cases, mostly family matters plus liquor licensing, betting and gaming work.

3.2. The Court System of Scotland and Northern Ireland

In Northern Ireland and Scotland there are autonomous judiciary systems. In Northern Ireland the judiciary comprises courts analogous to England and Wales’s ones (Court of Appeal, High Court, Crown Court, County Courts and Magistrates’ Courts). The system of courts in Scotland is rather different (the superior courts are High Court of Justiciary and Court of Session; the lower courts are Sheriff Courts and District Courts).

4. General elections in the UK

When Parliament is dissolved every seat in the House of Commons becomes vacant and a general election is held. Each constituency in the UK elects one MP to a seat in the House of Commons. The political party that wins a majority of seats in the House of Commons usually forms the Government.

1. 5. By-elections

A by-election takes place when a seat in the House of Commons becomes vacant between general elections. If there are several vacant seats then a number of by-elections can take place on the same day.

Glossary

Comprehension

Exercise 1. Fill in the gaps with the words and phrases from the box.

Monarch         government         legislative         political conventions                constitutional monarchy        Parliament        judiciary         Prime Minister        uncodified

Politics of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland take place in the framework of a ___________ in which the ______ is head of state and the _______ of the United Kingdom is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the _______. ______ power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of ________, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The _________ is independent of the executive and the legislature. The Constitution of the UK is _______, its sources being ___________ (accepted practices or unwritten rules), laws, statutes and Acts of Parliament.

Exercise 2. Enumerate at least 7 official functions of the Queen.

Exercise 3. Fill in the table about the Parliament, its structure and functions.

Exercise 4. Comment on each of the stages in the process of law-making.

1. Introduction of the bill
2. First Reading
3. Second Reading
4. Committee Stage
5. Report Stage
6. Third Reading
7. House of Lords
8. Royal Assent

Exercise 5. Decide whether the following statements are true or false?

1. The work of the Parliament is divided into two sessions.
2. The maximum duration of the parliament is 4 years.
3. The House of Lords may not veto money bills.
4. The House of Lords may suspend a bill for 1 year.
5. The Queen may refuse to sign a bill.
6. A bill may be introduced by one MP.
7. Peers receive salary for their work in the House of Lords.
8. The Queen is the head of the Parliament.
9. There is an electronic voting system in the British Parliament.
10. The sitting of the House of Commons are open for the general public.
11. There are special people who control the attendance and voting of party members.
12. A “whip” is a document notifying MPs of the weekly agenda.
13. In some cases an MP can miss a vote if he finds a member of the Opposition who also intends to be absent from the division.
14. The Speaker never votes.

Exercise 6. Match the questions 1-10 with the answers A-J

1. What is the Government?
2. What is the Cabinet?
3. Who chooses the Cabinet?
4. Which positions are included in the Cabinet?
5. When and where does the Cabinet meet?
6. Can Governments include members of more than one party?
7. What are Government Departments?
8. What is the relationship between Parliament and the Government?
9. Who are the Opposition?
10. What role does the Opposition play?

Exercise 7. Fill in the names of the current members of Her Majesty’s Cabinet and the Leader of her Majesty's opposition.

Exercise 8. Answer the following questions about the parliamentary elections in the UK.

1. Which electoral system is used?
2. What is a general election?
3. Who can stand as a candidate in a general election?
4. Who is able to vote in parliamentary elections?
5. What is a constituency?
6. How many constituencies are there in the UK?
7. How often are general elections held?
8. What happens during the election campaign?
9. What happens on polling day?
10. What is a by-election?

Exercise 9. Fill in the table with information about major parties in the UK.

Exercise 10. Fill in the information in the diagram and describe the functions of the different types of courts in England and Wales.

Further Reading

1. Britain’s System of Government. – London: Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 1993. – 36 p.
2. Focus on Britain. – London: Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 1993. – 40 p.
3. Jones B. Politics UK / B. Jones, D. Kavanagh, P. Norton, M. Moran. – [4-th ed.]. – London: Longman, 2000. – 736 p.
4. Kingdom J. Government and Politics in Britain: an introduction / John Kingdom. – [3-d ed.]. – Cambridge: Polity Press, 2003. – 800 p.
5. McLean I. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics / I McLean, A. McMillan. – [2-d ed. revised]. – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. – 624 p.
6. Parliamentary Elections in Britain. – London: Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 1993. – 20 p.
7. Sheerin S. Spotlight on Britain [2-d edition] / S. Sheerin, J. Seath, G. White. – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. 140 p.

EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE UK

Education system in the UK is divided into four main parts:

      compulsory education:

1. primary education (Years 1-6);
2. secondary education (Years 7-11);

elective education

3. further education (Sixth Form College);
4. higher education (college or university).

Schooling for children is compulsory from age 5 to 16, though children under 5 may attend nursery schools or day nurseries. Education within the maintained school system usually comprises two stages – primary and secondary education. Once a student finishes secondary education he/she has the option to extend into further education. UK students planning to go to college or university must complete further education.

To ensure that all schools could be standardised so all children went from Year 1 to Year 11 in the same way and at the same time, with the same curriculum the National Curriculum was designed. The curriculum consists of a range of subjects. There is a minimum mandatory core of English, mathematics, combined science, physical education, religious education, and sex education, with short courses in technology (including Information Technology) and a modern foreign language. This gives schools the freedom to teach a greater range of academic or vocational subjects, such as Greek and Latin, additional modern languages (French, German, Spanish, etc.), performing or creative arts, history and geography, the three separate sciences, etc. Schools are also expected to teach Personal and Social Education (PSE), which includes Citizenship. Religious education is available in all schools although parents have the right to withdraw their children from such classes.

1. Primary education

Primary schools consist mainly of infant schools for children aged 5 to 7, junior schools for those aged 7 to 11, and sometimes combined junior and infant schools for both age groups.

Primary students pass from years one to six without examinations, though their abilities are tested at age seven. The emphasis is on learning by discovery rather than memorisation. Students learn core subjects such as English, math and science, as well as foundation subjects such as history, geography, music, art and physical education. Infant schools are largely informal; there is an emphasis on children sharing and enjoying stories, communication through role play and other games and activities, and emergent writing e.g. making shopping lists, writing prescriptions etc. In junior schools, teaching is often more formal; children there usually have set periods of statutory subjects.

In their last year of primary education, till recently, most schoolchildren had to sit for the eleven-plus examination^[1]*. Today it is generally used as an entrance test to a specific group of secondary schools, rather than a blanket exam for all pupils, and is taken voluntarily.  

2. Secondary education

According to the National Curriculum, the statutory subjects that all pupils must study at this stage are art and design, citizenship, design and technology, English, geography, history, information and communication technology, mathematics, modern foreign languages, music, physical education and science. The teaching of careers education, sex education and religious education is also statutory.

2.1. Types of secondary schools

In UK two types of secondary education can be distinguished – selective and non-selective (comprehensive).

Within the non-selective (comprehensive) system, at the age of 11 children may go directly to a secondary comprehensive school.

Secondary comprehensive schools are state schools for children from the age of 11 to at least 16 that do not select children on the basis of academic achievement or aptitude. In the United Kingdom comprehensive schools were introduced in the late 1940s to the early 1970s. Some 90% of British pupils are educated at comprehensive schools.

Since this school teaches a comprehensive range of subjects across the academic and vocational spectrum it is commonly understood that the school will need to be of a large size and to take children from a wide ability range.

Within the selective system pupils may choose between grammar schools, technical schools and secondary modern schools.

Grammar schools are secondary schools attended by pupils aged 11 to 18 to which entry is controlled by means of an academically selective process which sometimes consists of a written examination (the eleven plus). Grammar schools give pupils a very high level of academic instruction. After leaving a grammar school, as with any other secondary school, a student may go into further education.

Secondary technical schools. These were a type of secondary schools in the United Kingdom that existed in the mid-20th century. Their aim was to teach mechanical, scientific and engineering skills to serve industry and science. For various reasons few were ever built, and their main interest is on a theoretical level.

Technical schools were a modest success, given their limited resources and lack of government attention. Their curriculum was well shaped for dealing with real world employment, and had a solid practical edge. The schools had good links with industry and commerce. Nowadays there are just a few technical schools in England and Wales.

Secondary modern schools were formed in the UK after World War II and are intended for children who would be going into a trade and thus concentrate on the basics plus practical skills (cooking, woodwork, metalwork, etc.)^[2]*.

2.2. The main school examination

At the end of Year 11, pupils aged 16 (in England, Wales and Northern Ireland) take a public examination called the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) (at Ordinary level (“O” level)) in a number of subjects, usually between 8 and 10. These consist of a mixture of internally assessed coursework and end-of-year examinations set and marked by independent examination boards. The results appear as grades A-G, where A is the top grade (a starred A* was introduced in 1994 for the best of the A grades). A, B or C grades are normally regarded as equivalent to the “pass” grades.

After sitting the exams, secondary students may leave school to enter the workforce, pursue training programmes at technical or vocational schools^[3]**, or continue studying for two more years at Sixth Form Colleges.

3. Further education (Sixth Form)

After GCSE (“O” level), more able pupils (usually university-bound ones) enter the “Sixth Form” (Years 12, 13). The curriculum of the sixth form is narrowed to about 5 subjects, of which the pupils will specialize in 2 or 3. The two-year course at Sixth Form College leads to the Advanced Level (“A” level) GCSE examination. The examination is usually taken after Year 13 (at the age of 17-18). Candidates may take as many subjects as they like. Three “A” levels are usually enough to gain entry to most universities^[4]*.

4. Higher education

The UK has a vast variety of higher education opportunities to offer students with over 100 universities providing various degree programs for students from the UK and around the world. In the UK about one-third of all students go on to some form of higher education and this number is well over 50% for students from Scotland. This makes competition for places very fierce and so it is advised to apply early for courses.

All UK universities enjoy academic freedom.

1. 4.1. UK Universities admission

• Stage 1: UCAS (Universities and Colleges Admissions Service).

As nearly all British higher education institutions are members of UCAS, all those wishing to study for first degrees in the UK must apply through UCAS. Applicants submit a single application via UCAS’s website with a list of up to five courses for which they are applying, in no order of preference. All five choices are confidential during the application process so universities and colleges considering an application cannot see any of the candidate’s other choices. Applications must be completed by the middle of the January of the year that the student wishes to start university. 

The application also includes current qualifications, employment and criminal history, a personal statement and a reference (which generally includes predicted grades if the applicant is still in education). 

• Stage 2: The universities concerned.

The application is forwarded by UCAS to the institutions applied to. Each applicant is first considered by the university admission board. The university admission board either sends the applicant an immediate refusal or, if there are no reasons for the latter, passes the candidate’s papers to the academic department concerned.

• Stage 3: The academic departments concerned.

1. Members of this or that academic department examine the candidate’s application and make him/her an offer of a place. Offers are either conditional, i.e. dependent on future examination performance, or unconditional.
2. Once the applicant has received responses from all the institutions applied to, he/she must respond by accepting up to two choices, whereas the remainder are declined.

• Stage 4: Final place confirmations.

Final place confirmations are generally made in mid-August, when the results of the A-level examinations become available. The University admissions department sees whether the candidate has fulfilled his/her conditions and if he/she has, sends him/her a definite offer.

The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge have additional requirements to prospective applicants because of the high volume of applications. In addition to the usual UCAS system, selection is based on candidate-submitted written work; interviews, which are held between applicants and college tutors; and, in some subjects, written admission tests prior to interview.

4.2. Types of universities in the UK

Most universities in the United Kingdom can be classified into 6 main categories:

• Ancient universities.
• London universities.
• Red Brick universities.
• Plate Glass Universities.
• The Open University.
• New Universities.
• Private University (University of Buckingham)

Ancient universities

The ancient universities in United Kingdom are, in order of formation:

• University of Oxford – founded before 1167.
• University of Cambridge – founded in 1209.
• University of St Andrews – founded in 1413 (incorporating the University of Dundee from 1897 to 1967).
• University of Glasgow – founded in 1451.
• University of Aberdeen – founded in 1495 (as King’s College, Aberdeen).
• University of Edinburgh – founded in 1582.

Following the creation of the ancient universities, no more universities were created in the region until the late 18th century.

The University of Oxford (or simply Oxford), located in the city of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England, is the oldest university in the English-speaking world. It is also regarded as one of the world’s leading academic institutions. The most distinctive features of this university are its tutorial and college systems.

The colleges^[5]* are completely autonomous: each college has its own tutors, administrators, grounds, residence halls and traditions. Students apply to a college, rather than to Oxford University, and most Oxford students readily identify themselves as students at their particular college, rather than the University itself. While each college monitors students’ academic progress and personal welfare, Oxford University conducts degree examinations, confers degrees, organizes lectures and maintains museums, libraries, laboratories and lecture halls. The faculties of the university are responsible for teaching and scholarship within their disciplines and provide tutors to students within their disciplines in the colleges.

The hallmark of Oxford University academics is the tutorial system. The tutorial is typically a one-hour meeting between one or two students and the tutor. Tutorials usually meet once a week or every other week, and at the center of the tutorial is an essay on a topic the tutor previously assigned. The tutor will lead a discussion about the essay topic in an effort to provide new insights. At the end of the tutorial, the tutor will assign a new topic and may offer recommended reading. Tutorials are individually arranged, taking into account the subject to be studied and the tutor’s area of expertise. They are similar to independent study courses, but Oxford students bear even more responsibility for conducting independent research and maintaining good academic progress. Oxford University organizes weekly lectures on myriad academic subjects, and all students at the University, regardless of college, are welcome to attend. Lectures are not usually mandatory except for some science subjects, but tutors often recommend them as good supplements to tutorials and research.

The University of Cambridge^[6]** is one of the world’s oldest universities and leading academic centres, and a self-governed community of scholars. Cambridge comprises 31 Colleges and over 150 departments, faculties, schools and other institutions.

Each college is an independent institution with its own property and income. The colleges appoint their own staff and are responsible for selecting students, in accordance with University regulations. The teaching of students is shared between the Colleges and University departments. Degrees are awarded by the University.

London Universities

London has one of the largest concentrations of universities in the world. It has 40 Higher Education institutions (not counting foreign Universities with London branches) and has a student population of more than 400,000. Among the institutions in London are some of the old and world-famous colleges that today make up the federal University of London, modern universities, as well as a number of smaller and often highly specialised universities and colleges. Additionally, over 34 000 students in over 180 countries follow the University of London External System, established in 1858. The System offers undergraduate and postgraduate diplomas and degrees to students worldwide. A designated constituent institution of the University of London called the “lead college” (e.g. Royal Holloway) creates materials to allow students to study at their own pace. Examinations take place at testing centers around the world on specified dates.

In the heart of London is University College London (UCL). Just 180 years ago, the benefits of a university education in England were restricted to men who were members of the Church of England; UCL was founded to challenge that discrimination. UCL was the first university to be established in England after Oxford and Cambridge, providing a progressive alternative to those institutions’ social exclusivity, religious restrictions and academic constraints.

UCL was the first university in England to admit students of any race, class or religion, and the first to welcome women on equal terms with men. A teaching programme was established in which religious beliefs would not constrain the dissemination of knowledge and exploration of ideas. It was the first English university to offer the systematic teaching of law, architecture and medicine.

Red Brick Universities

Red brick (or “redbrick”) is a term used to refer to the six civic British universities founded in the major industrial cities of England in the Victorian era which achieved university status before World War II.

The term “red brick” was first coined by a professor of Spanish (Edgar Allison Peers) at the University of Liverpool to describe these civic universities. His reference was inspired by the fact that The Victoria Building at the University of Liverpool is built from a distinctive red pressed brick, with terracotta decorative dressings.

The six civic^[7]* universities were:

• University of Birmingham; Royal Charter granted in 1900.
• University of Bristol; Royal Charter granted in 1909.
• University of Leeds; Royal Charter granted in 1904.
• University of Liverpool; Royal Charter granted in 1903.
• University of Manchester; formed in 2004 by the dissolution of Victoria University and UMIST.
• University of Sheffield; Royal charter granted in 1905.

These universities were distinguished by being non-collegiate institutions that admitted men without reference to religion or background and concentrated on imparting to their students “real-world” skills, often linked to engineering. This focus on the practical also distinguished the red brick universities from the ancient English universities of Oxford and Cambridge, collegiate institutions which concentrated on divinity, the liberal arts and imposed religious tests.  

Plate Glass Universities

The term plate glass university (or plateglass university) has come into use by some to refer to one of the several universities founded in the United Kingdom in the 1960s in the era of the Robbins Report^[8]* on higher education. The term “plateglass” reflects their modern architectural design, which often contains wide expanses of plate glass in steel or concrete frames. This contrasts with the (largely Victorian) Red Brick universities and the older Ancient universities.

The phrase New University formerly appeared as a synonym for the Plateglass institutions, however since 1992 this term has tended to be applied to the post-1992 universities (consisting mostly of former polytechnics) instead.

The name “Plateglass Universities” was apparently first used by Michael Beloff in his 1968 book The Plateglass Universities. Beloff invents the term “Plateglass Universities” to describe the 1960s universities – specifically Sussex, York, East Anglia, Essex, Lancaster, Kent at Canterbury and Warwick – and describes his reasons for using the term:

I had at the start to decide upon a generic term for the new universities — they will not be new for ever. None of the various caps so far tried have fitted. “Greenfields” describes only a transient phase. “Whitebrick”, “Whitestone”, and “Pinktile” hardly conjure up the grey or biscuit concrete massiveness of most of their buildings, and certainly not the black towers of Essex. “Newbridge” is fine as far as the novelty goes, but where on earth are the bridges? Sir Edward Boyle more felicitously suggested “Shakespeare”. But I have chosen to call them the Plateglass Universities. It is architecturally evocative; but more important, it is metaphorically accurate.

Beloff has many things to say about the new universities, some critical, but much positive:

The role of Plateglass in reviving a belief in the need for and virtues of higher education is especially important. Plateglass universities give the lie to the view that universities are conservative, unchanging institutions. In syllabuses, examinations, teaching methods, administration, discipline, they have taken new initiatives.

The Open University

The Open University is the UK’s distance learning government-supported university notable for having an open entry policy, i.e. students’ previous academic achievements are not taken into account for entry to most undergraduate courses. It was established in 1969 and the first students enrolled in January 1971. The majority of students are based in the UK, but its courses can be studied anywhere in the world. The administration is based at Walton Hall, Milton Keynes in Buckinghamshire, but has regional centres in each of its thirteen regions around the UK. It also has offices in other European countries. The University awards undergraduate and postgraduate degrees, as well as non-degree qualifications such as diplomas and certificates, or continuing education units.

With more than 180,000 students enrolled, including more than 25,000 students studying overseas, it is the largest academic institution in the UK by student number, and qualifies as one of the world’s largest universities. Since it was founded, more than 3 million students have studied its courses.

New Universities

The term has recently been used to describe any of the former polytechnics, Central Institutions, or colleges of higher education that were given the status of universities by John Major’s government in 1992, or colleges that have been granted university status since then, also called post-1992 universities or modern universities.

The University of Buckingham

The University of Buckingham is the only degree-awarding private university in the United Kingdom.

Its two campuses are both located in Buckingham, Buckinghamshire. The upper campus is devoted mainly to Law, while the other, the riverside campus (in the centre of town), focuses on Business, the Humanities, and Science.

4.3. Types of degrees in the UK

A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing a program of study.

Degrees are divided into “first degrees” (undergraduate degrees) and “second degrees” (postgraduate degrees).

4.3.1. “First degrees” 

The standard first degree is the Bachelor’s degree with honours (e.g. BA (hons) for arts subjects^[9]*, BEng (hons) for Engineering and BSc (hons) for science). This usually takes three years’ full-time study.

Honours degrees are usually categorised by one of four grades:

• First class honours (1st)
• Second class honours, divided into:

1. Upper division, or upper second (2:1)
2. Lower division, or lower second (2:2)

• Third class honours (3rd)

Students who do not achieve the standard for the award of honours may be given an ordinary or pass degree which is without honours.

Some students study an integrated Master’s, which is still a first degree. This takes four years of study and is usually designated by the subject, such as MEng for engineering, MPhys for physics, MMath for mathematics, and so on. The 4-year MEng degree in particular has now become the standard first degree in engineering in the top UK universities, replacing the older 3-year BEng.

4.3.2. “Higher degrees”:

4.3.2.1. Master’s degree 

In order to study a course at Master’s level, one typically needs to have a Bachelor’s degree. Broadly speaking, Master’s degrees can be classified as either Taught Master’s Courses or Research-based Master’s Courses.

Taught Master’s Courses

Teaching and learning on taught Master’s courses may be in the form of essays, project work, industrial or business placements, lectures, tutorials or discussion groups. Taught Master’s courses usually include a project or short research dissertation, which one works on individually or as part of a group. Taught Master’s programs are typically one to two years in duration and are very specialised. The Master of Arts (MA) and the Master of Science (MSc or MS) degrees are the basic degree types that cover most subjects.

• Master of Arts (MA)

The MA is typically studied in the Arts, Humanities, Theology and the Social Sciences (although some universities will award a Master of Science for some Social Sciences Masters degrees). MA degrees typically take one-two years to complete.

• Master of Science (MSc or MS)

This is a graduate academic Master’s degree awarded in the pure and applied sciences and takes one to two years to complete. The Master of Science is usually studied to obtain a higher qualification for employment prospects or in preparation for doctoral studies.

2. Research Master’s Courses are usually in the form of a thesis in any subject and are mostly self-directed work with few taught elements. A Master’s degree by research is typically offered as a Master of Philosophy (MPhil) and a Master of Research (MRes).

• Master of Philosophy (MPhil)

The MPhil is often taken as a provisional enrolment for the PhD. Students sometimes make the decision to continue to a PhD during their MPhil course.

• Master of Research (MRes)

In the UK, the MRes is a graduate degree available in a range of academic disciplines. The MRes is designed to prepare students for a career in research. The MRes is more structured and organised than the MPhil but it differs from a taught Masters by placing particular emphasis on a large dissertation (usually between 35,000-40,000 words) in addition to a few taught modules.

4.3.2.2. Doctorate’s degree

A doctorate is an academic degree of the highest level. There are three types:

• Research Doctorate
• Practitioner’s Doctorate
• Honorary Doctorate

Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of original academic research that is of publishable standard. The most common type of research doctorate is a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD).

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The PhD is an advanced academic degree and applies to a wide variety of disciplines in the sciences and humanities. The PhD is usually a requirement for a career in research or as a university lecturer. A Master’s degree is typically a requirement for admission to a PhD program.

A practitioner’s doctorate generally requires a Master’s degree and some post-Bachelor’s experience in a relevant field. It is a doctorate for professionals such as educators, teachers, business executives, civil servants etc. who are interested in the application of theories.

3. Honorary Doctorate is awarded to those who deserve special recognition either for academic work or other contributions to university or society.

5. Teaching styles in UK higher education

Many new undergraduates are initially anxious about their abilities to “write”, “study” and “learn” in an appropriate way for higher education.  They therefore need structured support and encouragement  in order to come to terms with their higher education environment and their understanding of their own personal learning styles.

Traditionally, teaching in UK higher education takes place through lectures. Lectures are commonly used in the majority of university courses and are timetabled to last one, or sometimes two hours.  Lectures, depending on the discipline, are attended by large numbers of students, as many as 400-500 students in some schools, but more usually 100-150 students in most subjects.

The purpose of the lecture is to communicate effectively key concepts, information and viewpoints to students to motivate their interest and understanding.  Many lecturers see the lecture as a place to provide students with an overview of the subject and a framework in which to structure and organise their thoughts and their private study.  Lecturers select and organise material so that it is accessible to the level and ability of their students. They then seek to explain it clearly using a range of audio and visual learning aids.

In style the lecturer is aiming to be relaxed but professional, enthusiastic but organised, assured and yet approachable.  Maintaining eye contact, modulating one’s voice and avoiding reading from scripts or slides is important. In recent years lectures have become more interactive; lecturers expect students to play a much more active role and thus use brainstorming initiating discussion. Students are allowed to interrupt with questions.

Workshops. The defining feature of a workshop is that it involves student participation and activity – it revolves around students “doing things”.  The learning activities are frequently carried out in small groups and will involve discussion and debate.  The varied learning tasks are usually punctuated by inputs and plenary discussions led by the tutor or facilitator.

The purpose of workshops is to develop a range of skills, to challenge attitudes, to apply knowledge and to share experiences and views.  It is a form of teaching and learning which benefits from having a mixed ability and mixed experienced group of students and aims to allow students to learn from each other and share views and approaches.

So workshops are extended small group teaching sessions, often lasting a whole morning or even a day and involving about 15-30 students.  They consist of a series of learning activities embedded in a timetabled schedule and framework which are designed to help students achieve both skills and knowledge-based learning outcomes.  Outcomes are also often focused on more nebulous areas of development such as growing confidence and empowering students to take the initiative etc.  This may well involve challenging students to work in different ways and outside their “comfort zone”.

Workshops are often used to develop team working abilities and to nurture creativity and lateral thinking so common learning tasks may include problem-solving case studies, mini-research tasks and presentations.

Seminars are commonly used in many disciplines but are very significant in the arts and social sciences. They are usually one hour in length but maybe longer.  Student numbers are kept low in seminars (typically 15-25 students in seminars, maybe lower in tutorials) or larger cohorts are divided into small working groups of about five students per group.  For larger year cohorts of students it is often necessary to run parallel seminar sessions with a team of tutors.  A challenge for course leaders in this situation is to ensure parity and some degree of consistency of experience for the students. In some instances tutors will be provided with set readings, questions and tasks by the coordinating course leader – so that each tutor will be asked to lead the seminar in the same way.

A common type of seminar in the UK is the “student-led” seminar in which a student or students are asked to prepare and lead a seminar on a designated topic.  In rotation the students will share the role of seminar leader and be responsible for introducing the key features of the topic to be studied before facilitating a discussion between their classmates.  It is very likely that students will need quite a lot of support and clear guidance to do this.  Some tutors divide the two roles and give the responsibility of leading a seminar to a pair of students. In such circumstances one student would take the role as the “presenter” whilst the second would take the role as the “facilitator or discussant”.

Personal tutorials. The vast majority of UK undergraduate students are assigned a personal or a pastoral tutor who will keep this role until the student graduates.  The role of a personal tutor is to:

• Provide personal support and general academic guidance to the student.
• Act as a gateway to a wide range of personal support services at the university.
• Be the first point of contact should any issues arise.

An important function of the personal tutor system is to provide the students with a first point of contact if they experience any personal or academic difficulties during their studies.  To assist the development of the tutoring relationship, students are often required to meet each term or semester with their tutors and to give form and substance to these meetings, many universities ask personal tutors to carry out a range of administrative and personal development planning activities with their students.

Practical or laboratory classes. In the majority of undergraduate programmes taught in the sciences, engineering and medical disciplines students will be required to undertake practical work.  Indeed such teaching may contribute a significant proportion of the taught component of the course and account for the majority of a student’s contact time with staff.

The underpinning educational theory for practical work is that of experiential learning or “learning by and through doing”.  So a key belief is that the students need to have experience of carrying out learning tasks and then reflecting on them critically.  The “writing-up” or reporting of practical work is therefore very important.  Students are frequently guided to critique their work and propose improvements on the approaches they took and the results they achieved.

Depending on the discipline practical sessions may run over a whole day or half a day and be supervised by academic staff, laboratory technicians and postgraduate demonstrators.  This teaching team is responsible for the effective and safe study of the students.

6. The structure of the academic year in the UK

In contrast to a calendar year, in most European countries an academic year begins with the start of autumn and ends the following spring.  This is because it follows the medieval agricultural pattern of the year in northern Europe, in which July and August were when able-bodied young people were needed on the farms.

Describing and explaining the structure of the academic year in UK higher education is complicated by the fact that the key words used, particularly, for example, “semester” and “term”, are not always defined in the same way by different higher education institutions.  As a consequence, they do not always carry precisely the same meaning.  As with many elements of UK universities, there are differing practices that use confusingly similar terminology.

4. A semester. An academic year of approximately 30-32 weeks contains two semesters and three terms.  A semester, which literally means “six months”, is usually used to describe two periods of academic-related activity in a year.  Semesters are actually about four months long and are referred to as Semester 1 and Semester 2.

 A term is generally understood to be a largely continuous period of teaching-related activities.  Usually there are three terms in a year – for example autumn, spring and summer.  Each term is about three months long and separated by holidays.  A term may or may not include a period of assessment.  Terms, along with holidays and examination periods, exist within the structure of the semesters.  That is a characteristic structure of the academic year in UK higher education.

However, over the last 15 years, a considerable amount of time and effort has been spent on attempting to determine the best way to deliver higher education curricula.  As a result, individual institutions often have their own methods for organising the structure of their academic year.

 Diversity and variations to the structure of the academic year. Learning and teaching is delivered within semesters through “modules”, “units” or “courses” which are often assessed at the end of the semester.  In some universities semesters are essentially continuous and separated by vacations, just like terms.  Occasionally, a third semester is introduced in the summer period.  Where three semesters are of equal length they may be referred to as trimesters.

Many universities run 10-week autumn, spring and summer terms, though some use different names or a specific semester system, with the new semester beginning halfway through the second term.  Other universities run terms which are uneven in length, with the autumn term usually the longest.

Even within individual institutions, practice can vary from year to year to accommodate factors such as the changing date of Easter.  Some universities also have a “reading week” in which no teaching takes place.  At other universities reading weeks are not uniform and may be in different weeks in different faculties, departments, modules or even seminar groups.  Some reading weeks only cover seminars whilst lectures continue; others stop both for the week.

  An exception to most practices. An exception to the many variations in the structure of the academic year is the Open University.

Most of its undergraduate courses do not coincide with the structure of the academic year used by universities in Britain and elsewhere.  Instead, they largely coincide with the calendar year – In other words, they typically start in February, with examinations in the autumn.

7. Students’ finance

The first step in drawing up a budget for student life is working out how much higher education will cost. One will need to consider tuition fees, accommodation and living costs.

Tuition fees

Tuition fees help pay for the costs of running a university or college – salaries for teaching staff, maintaining the buildings and so on. For example, the maximum tuition fees one could be charged for 2008/2009 was £3,145.

There’s a student finance package available to help with the costs of higher education. The main sources of help for full-time students are:

• Student loans and grants from the government;
• bursaries from universities and colleges.

If one takes out a Student Loan from the government, he/she won’t have to start paying it back until he/she left the course and is earning more than £15,000 a year. Any help that one gets through a grant or bursary doesn’t have to be repaid at all.

Accommodation and other living costs

There are a number of things to take into account when one is working out his/her living costs. Living costs for full-time students include:

• accommodation – this is likely to be one’s single biggest expense if one is living away from home;
• food;
• household bills – gas, electricity, water rates, phone, TV licence, contents insurance;
• clothes;
• travel;
• socialising;
• leisure and sport;
• study costs – such as books, materials and field trips for one’s course.

As well as Student Loans, one may be able to get a Maintenance Grant or Special Support Grant to help with accommodation and other living costs. One won’t have to pay this back.

Grants of up to £2,835 were available for 2008/2009.

Students can also receive a bursary (scholarship) – a monetary award made by an institution to an individual or a group to assist the development of their education. There are two types of bursary awarded by institutions (such as universities). The first is a means-tested (need-based) bursary which is available for all students whose parents earn under a threshold value per year. It is often given out using a sliding scale, with people at the lowest end of the scale getting a full bursary, and the monetary award decreasing in value with proportion to the parental earnings.

The second type of bursary is one based on performance – a scholarship (merit-based scholarship). These awards are generally given for good performance in the exams preceding university/college entrance, where the student gets grades above the standard entry. These can be awarded by the university, or sometimes by companies.

8. Teacher training in the UK

There are many ways to become a teacher in the UK.  You need to achieve your QTS or Qualified Teacher Status, which will enable one to teach in state maintained schools in England and Wales.

There are five ways to obtain your Qualified Teacher Status in the UK:

1. Initial teacher training

One can study to become a teacher while completing your first undergraduate degree.  The qualification is a Bachelor of Education and incorporates your specific subject areas (such as English, Mathematics, History) with an education component. This initial teacher training (ITT) courses are provided by universities and other higher education institutions, of which the Open University is the largest provider. The Training and Development Agency for Schools (TDA) is responsible for the initial and in-service training of teachers and other school staff in England. It is an executive non-departmental public body of the Department for Children, Schools and Families.

It can take 3 to 4 years to complete but if one has completed previous tertiary subjects, one may be able to obtain credits for these and reduce your study time down to potentially 2 years.

2. Postgraduate teacher training

If one already has a degree, then he or she can complete the teacher training as a postgraduate.  The certification is a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) and can be completed by people who already have a bachelor degree in a specific field.  This course can take 1 year full time or 2 years part time.  One will learn how to deliver a subject to children using correct teaching methodologies.  These courses are available at universities, but there are also opportunities to train via flexible distance learning.

3. In-service training

An excellent opportunity is to train and qualify to teach while one is already employed in a school. This is known as in-service training. One can earn an income while learning and be able to apply everything learnt straight away. 

To become involved in this, a person needs to apply to a Graduate Teacher Program (GTP) provider who will find one a school to work in as an unqualified teacher.  To qualify one needs to have a UK bachelor degree and GCSE grade C or higher in Math and English.  It can take up to 1 year full time to complete this qualification.

4. Assessment-based teacher training

If a person has considerable teaching experience but does not have one’s Qualified Teacher Status, then one may qualify for assessment based teacher training.

This program is for people with substantial experience within a UK school as an unqualified teacher or instructor.  One is required to demonstrate that he or she meets the standards to get Qualified Teacher Status by submitting evidence of his or her experience and abilities as a classroom teacher.  This process can take up to a year to complete and includes visits to one’s school by an assessor.

5. Overseas Trained Teacher Program

If a person would like to work in the UK and he or she is a qualified teacher from another country then the Overseas Trained Teacher Program is going to be the best for such a person.  One may need to spend up to a year working in a school as an unqualified teacher while obtaining his or her Qualified Teacher Status, but if one can demonstrate that he or she has the appropriate skills and experience to meet the required standards, he or she can apply to have the Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) assessment straight away.  One will need to demonstrate that he or she has a UK bachelor degree equivalent, the equivalent or higher of a GCSE grade C in Math and English and if one wishes to teach 7-14 year old children one will need to demonstrate an equivalent standard to GCSE grade 3 in a science subject.

Glossary

Comprehension

Exercise 1. Look at the diagram of the UK school system and answer the questions about the levels of school education.

1. What is the age of compulsory education in the UK?
2. What kind of educational establishments is available for children below the compulsory age of schooling?
3. What are the four key stages of school education in the UK?
4. What is the age of primary education in Britain?
5. What are the two systems of primary schools?
6. What is the compulsory age of secondary education?
7. What can a person do after the age of compulsory education?

Exercise 2. Read the text and fit the sentences below into their correct places in it. There is one extra sentence you will not need.

Generally, all publicly-funded primary schools must provide the National Curriculum to their students. National Curriculum core subjects for primary schools are: English, mathematics and science. [1] Foundation subjects are design and technology; information and communication technology; history; geography; modern foreign languages; music; art and design; physical education; religious education; and citizenship. Although learning a modern foreign language in England does not become compulsory until the beginning of key stage 3 (students aged 11+), the Government encourages the optional learning of a foreign language prior to this stage.

All maintained schools in England are required to provide religious education and a daily act of collective worship. [2]

The school year consists of 380 (half-day) sessions. The actual dates of terms and holidays are determined annually by the local education authority (LEA). In general, the school year runs from about the first week of September to the third week of July. [3] The school week normally runs from Monday to Friday. The school day is divided into two sessions, one in the morning (usually between 9am and 12 noon) and one in the afternoon (usually between around 1 pm and 3.30pm).

In general, all children in their final year of key stage 2 (normally in Year 6 and aged 11 by the end of the school year) are assessed by teacher assessment in all compulsory National Curriculum subjects and by national tests in English, mathematics and science. [4] All students continue to secondary education, regardless of the outcome of the end of key stage 2 assessment.

A Unlike the key stage 1 tests, the National Curriculum key stage 2 tests are externally marked.

B At the request of a parent, any child in a publicly-funded primary school in England may, however, be excused from these activities.

C Welsh is a core subject in Welsh-speaking schools.

D Many of these are boarding schools, where children live and sleep during the term.

E It is divided into three terms, with a long summer break of about six weeks in July and August, shorter breaks of two to three weeks at Christmas and Easter, and one week in the middle of each term. 

Exercise 3. Match the kinds of secondary school that exist in Britain with their descriptions.

Exercise 4. Fill in the missing information in the table.

Exercise 5. Read the text and match the bodies responsible for school education with their functions.

• The Department of Education and Science
• Local education authorities
• Boards of governors

Three partners are responsible for the education service: central government – the Department of Education and Science (DES), local education authorities (LEAs), and schools themselves. Every state school has its own governing body (a board of governors), consisting of teachers, parents, local politicians, businessmen and members of the local community. ____________________ is concerned with the formation of national policies for education. It is responsible for the maintenance of minimum national standard of education.

_____________________ are charged with the provision and day-to-day running of the schools and colleges in their areas and the recruitment and payment of the teachers who work in them. They are responsible for the provision of buildings, materials and equipment. However, the choice of textbooks and timetable are usually left to the headmaster. The content and methods of teaching are decided by the individual teacher.

 ____________________ are responsible for their school’s main policies, including the recruitment of the staff. A great role is played by the Parent Teacher Association (PTA). Practically all parents are automatically members of the PTA and are invited to take part in its many activities.

Ex. 6 Describe the peculiarities of the following types of universities and colleges in the UK.

• The two old English universities of Oxford and Cambridge and old Scottish universities
• London Universities
• The Red Brick universities.
• The Plate Glass universities.
• The new Universities.
• The Open University

• The privately financed University of Buckingham

Exercise 7. For the following statements indicate one or several names or types of universities and colleges.

1. The first university to admit women was__________________________________________.
2. The universities that appeared in the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth are called ___________________________________________________________.
3. Universities famous for their personal tuition system are_____________________________.
4. The Colleges of Advanced Technology which became universities after 1963 are now called ________________________________________________________.
5. The most famous institution of distance learning in Great Britain is _____________________.
6. The term “red-brick” is used to refer to this type of universities: ____________________.
7. Glasgow University belongs to _________________________________________________.
8. The privately financed university is ____________________________________.

Exercise 8.  Answer the following questions about the admission procedure used in Britain.

1. Where should school leavers in Britain apply to if they want to go to university?
2. What information does a candidate include in the UCAS form?
3. When should one apply to UCAS?
4. What does the UCAS do with the applications?
5. What university groups consider the applications for admission?
6. What decision may be sent to the applicant?

8. When is a definite offer sent to the applicant?

Exercise 9. Fill in the missing information in the table about types of degrees awarded by British Universities.

Exercise 10. Read the text and fit the sentences below into their proper places.

DISTANCE LEARNING

The defining feature of distance learning is that you do not need to attend the awarding university/institution in person. This allows you to study from home with course materials provided by the institution. (1) Institutions provide special systems of support to help you through the course.

This style of study is not new. The University of London established its External Programme in 1858 to make the degree accessible to students who, for one reason or another, could not come to London to study, and it now offers a range of undergraduate and postgraduate qualifications, to almost 24,500 students in over 157 countries around the world. Many professional bodies were also aware of the conflict that people face between the need to work full time and the need to acquire and keep up to date a professional qualification. (2)

Provision for students unable to attend university increased in 1969 when the Open University was established. (3) It offers its 150.000 students the opportunity of studying for undergraduate and postgraduate qualifications or a range of professional diplomas. Now a growing number of other UK institutions are developing distance learning programmes to offer students the chance of studying without leaving home.

The academic support given to a distance learning student varies from programme to programme and from institution to institution. (4) In its simplest form, students may receive basic academic guidance through specially written study guides and past examination papers and reports. However, many programmes provide an extensive range of materials including videos, computer disks, audio tapes and annotated texts. Some institutions have introduced programmes of study which can be delivered to a student’s home by Internet. Direct tutor support may not always be available, but, if it is, it may be given through seminars given by visiting academics and email/fax responses to assignments returned to the home institution, residential summer schools and/or revision weekends. (5)

The choice of qualifications available to students is wide, from ‘A’ levels to undergraduate diploma and degrees, master’s programmes and PhD by research.

A Since the turn of the century, such bodies have offered their members the opportunity to gain qualifications through correspondence courses.

B However, the focus is on self-study.

C These can be paper-based, on CD-Rom or provided through the Internet.

D Some universities and colleges have local partners who provide on the spot advice and support.

E The OU differs from most other British universities in that it is open to any adult living in the UK/EU irrespective of previous educational qualifications.

Exercise 11. Answer the following questions about various aspects of university educarion in Britain.

1. What is the dominant teaching style in British universities?
2. What is the difference between a workshop and a seminar?
3. What is a tutorial?
4. What role does a tutor play in a student's academic life?
5. In what ways can an academic year be structured?
6. What are the main costs for university students in Britain?
7. What governmental support can a student receive towards his/ her tuition fees? What does it depend on?
8. In what form is the help towards living expenses provided by the government? On what conditions?
9. What are the two main types of scholarships?

Exercise 12. Explain how the following is connected with the system of teacher training in the UK.

• Training and Development Agency for Schools (TDA)

• Qualified Teacher Status (QTS)
• initial teacher training
• in-service training
• Postgraduate certificate of Education
• Bachelor of Education
• Graduate Teacher Program (GTP)
• Overseas Trained Teacher Program

Further Reading

1. Gordon P. Dictionary of british education / P. Gordon, Lawton D. – London; Portland, OR: Woburn Press, 2003. – 303 p.
2. Sheerin S. Spotlight on Britain [2-d edition] / S. Sheerin, J. Seath, G. White. – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. 140 p.

EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE USA

Education in the United States is provided mainly by the government, with control and funding coming from three levels: federal, state, and local.

The federal government provides research and support to ensure equal access and excellence in education, along with funding student loan programs and assistance to lower- income students. Nevertheless, responsibility for education remains primarily a state and local enterprise. According to the U.S. Department of Education, about 90 percent of the annual expenditures for education at all levels comes from state, local, and private sources.

State boards of education, along with a state superintendent or commissioner, oversee local education districts, set student and teacher standards, approve the classroom curriculum, and often review textbook selections. The state’s chief power, however, is increasingly financial: most states now provide substantial aid to schools to supplement local tax revenues.

Local boards of education, most of which are elected, administer the nation’s nearly 15,500 school districts, ranging from small rural schools in states like Kansas and Nebraska to the New York City system, which educates more than a million children annually. They are responsible for school curricula, funding, teaching, and other policies.

The American education system requires that students complete 12 years of primary and secondary education (compulsory schooling) prior to attending university or college.

The U.S. educational system today comprises almost 96,000 public elementary and secondary schools, plus more than 4 200 institutions of higher learning, ranging from small, two-year community colleges to massive state universities with undergraduate and graduate programs in excess of 30 000 students.

1. Preschool in the USA

Preschool is a place where children begin their learning process by way of play and fun. Kindergarten is the place where tender minds open up to absorb what ever is fed to them, which in turn makes the teachers play a vital role in shaping and molding these young minds.

Preschools, kindergarten and elementary school teachers have a knack of introducing children to various subjects like mathematics, language, science, and social studies through use of games, music, artwork. What a child learns during their early years is going to remain with him throughout and also becomes a deciding factor in their outlook towards life.

2. Compulsory schooling in the USA

The ages for compulsory education vary by state, beginning at ages five to eight and ending at the ages of fourteen to eighteen. A growing number of states are now requiring school attendance until the age of 18.

Compulsory education requirements can generally be satisfied by attending public schools, state-certified private schools, or an approved home school program. In most public and private schools, education is divided into three levels: elementary school, junior high school (also often called middle school), and senior high school.

In the U.S. the first year of compulsory schooling begins with children at the age of five or six. Children are then placed in year groups known as grades, beginning with first grade and culminating in twelfth grade. The U.S. uses ordinal numbers for naming grades, unlike Canada and Australia where cardinal numbers are preferred. Thus, Americans are more likely to say “First Grade” rather than “Grade One”.

The school year usually runs from early September until May or June (nine months) and is divided into “quarters” or terms (semesters). Some schools use the quarter system, which comprises three sessions: fall (September to December), winter (January to March) and spring (March to May or June). Others use a semester system made up of two sessions: fall (September to December) and spring (January to May).

School vacation dates are published by schools well in advance, thus allowing parents plenty of time to schedule family holidays during official school holiday periods. Normally parents aren’t permitted to withdraw children from classes, except for visits to a doctor or dentist, when the teacher should be informed in advance whenever possible. If one wishes to take a child out of school during classes, one must obtain permission from the principal. This is rarely given. It’s particularly unwise to take a child out of school when he/she should be taking examinations or during important course work assignments.

2.1. Elementary school

Elementary school is a school of kindergarten through fifth grade (sometimes, the first eight grades or up to fourth grade or sixth grade), where basic subjects are taught. Elementary school provides and often remains in one or two classrooms throughout the school day, with the exceptions of physical education (“P.E.” or “gym”), library, music, and art classes.

Typically, the curriculum within public elementary education is determined by individual school districts. The school district selects curriculum guides and textbooks that are reflective of a state’s learning standards and benchmarks for a given grade level. In general, a student learns basic arithmetic and sometimes rudimentary algebra in mathematics, English proficiency (such as basic grammar, spelling, and vocabulary), and fundamentals of other subjects.

2.2. Junior and senior high school

Junior high school is any school intermediate between elementary school and senior high school. It usually includes seventh and eighth grade, and sometimes sixth or ninth grade. In some locations, junior high school includes ninth grade only, allowing students to adjust to a high school environment. Middle school is often used instead of junior high school when demographic factors increase the number of younger students. At this time, students are given more independence as choosing their own classes. Usually, starting in ninth grade, grades become part of a student’s official transcript. Future employers or colleges may want to see steady improvement in grades and a good attendance record on the official transcript. Therefore, students are encouraged to take much more responsibility for their education.

Senior high school is a school attended after junior high school. High school is often used instead of senior high school and distinguished from junior high school.

Generally, at the high school level, students take a broad variety of classes without special emphasis in any particular subject. Curricula vary widely in quality and rigidity; for example, some states consider 70 (on a 100-point scale) to be a passing grade, while others consider it to be as low as 60 or as high as 75.

The following are offered at some schools in the United States:

• Science (usually two years minimum, normally biology, chemistry and physics).
• Mathematics (usually two years minimum, normally including algebra, geometry, algebra II, and/or precalculus/trigonometry).
• English (usually four years minimum, including literature, humanities, etc.).
• Social Science (usually three years minimum, including various history, government/economics courses).
• Physical education (at least one year).

Many states require a “health” course in which students learn about anatomy, nutrition, first aid, sexuality, and birth control. Anti-drug use programs are also usually part of health courses. In many cases, however, options are provided for students to “test out” or perform independent study in order to complete this requirement. Foreign language and some form of art education are also a mandatory part of the curriculum in some schools.

2.3. Electives

Many high schools offer a wide variety of Elective courses, although the availability of such courses depends upon each particular school’s financial resources and desired curriculum emphases. An Elective is an additional course which is not compulsory, thus not needed for graduation. Students choose electives according to their perceived abilities and talents. Though electives are not compulsory students are encouraged to participate in them.

Common types of electives include:

• Visual arts (drawing, sculpture, painting, photography, film).
• Performing arts (drama, band, chorus, orchestra, dance).
• Technology education (“Shop”; woodworking, metalworking, automobile repair, robotics).
• Computers (word processing, programming, graphic design).
• Athletics (cross country, football, baseball, basketball, track and field, swimming, tennis, gymnastics, water polo, soccer, wrestling, cheerleading, volleyball, lacrosse, ice hockey, field hockey, boxing, skiing/snowboarding).
• Publishing (journalism/student newspaper, yearbook/annual, literary magazine).
• Foreign languages (Spanish, French are common; Chinese, Latin, Greek, German, Italian, Arabic, and Japanese are less common).

2.4. Extracurricular activities

Besides electives US students participate in a large number of extracurricular activities – activities performed by students that fall outside the realm of the normal curriculum of school or university education. Extracurricular activities exist at all levels of education, junior high/middle school, high school, college and university education. On average, in the United States, many students participate in a minimum of one extracurricular activity throughout the course of one school year.

As an extracurricular activity one can watch basketball, baseball, track, gymnastics, tennis, aerobics, volleyball, and weight lifting on ESPN, or one can get out and enjoy them by joining the school team. If a student is not into team sports, there’s French club, the debating team, chess club, student government, radio, newspaper, yearbook, environmental club, 4-H^[1]*, drama, choir, photography, Students Against Destructive Decisions, jazz band, Business Professionals of America, computer club, and more.

2.5. Educational standards in the US

High schools maintain a school “transcript” for each student, summarizing the courses taken, the grades attained^[2]** and other relevant data. If a student wishes to go on to college or university, his/her high school submits copies of his transcript to the college. College or university acceptance is also based upon personal recommendations from teachers, achievements outside school (e.g. extra-curricular and sports achievements), and college aptitude tests.

Students planning to go to college take national college aptitude tests during their last two years in high school, set by various independent institutions. Some colleges also require students to take Achievement (Ach.) Tests. Tests are of the multiple-choice type and aren’t based directly on school work, but are designed to measure aptitude and verbal and mathematical skills rather than knowledge (tests are often accused of testing nothing but a student’s ability to take the test itself).

The best known and widely used tests are the American College Testing (ACT) programme and the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), both of which are recognized by accredited universities to evaluate potential students.

2.6. Types of schools in the USA

Public schools are required to provide an education free of charge to everyone of school age in their districts. Admission to individual public schools is usually based on residency. To compensate for differences in school quality based on geography, school systems serving large cities and portions of large cities often have “magnet schools” that provide enrollment to a specified number of non-resident students in addition to serving all resident students. This special enrollment is usually decided by lottery with equal numbers of males and females chosen. Some magnet schools cater to gifted students or to students with special interests, such as the sciences or performing arts. Admission to some of these schools is highly competitive and based on an application process. Curriculum decisions in public schools are made largely at the local and state levels; the federal government has limited influence. In most districts, a locally elected school board runs schools. The school board appoints an official called the superintendent of schools to manage the schools in the district.

Private schools in the United States include parochial schools (affiliated with religious denominations), non-profit independent schools, and for-profit private schools. Private schools charge varying rates depending on geographic location, the school’s expenses, and the availability of funding from sources, other than tuition. For example, some churches partially subsidize private schools for their members.

Private schools have various missions: most of them take sports very seriously and recruit athletes heavily, some cater to college-bound students seeking a competitive edge in the college admissions process; others are for gifted students, students with learning disabilities or other special needs, or students with specific religious affiliations. Some cater to families seeking a small school, with a nurturing, supportive environment. Unlike public school systems, private schools have no legal obligation to accept any interested student. Admission to some private schools is highly selective. Private schools also have the ability to permanently expel persistently unruly students, a disciplinary option not always legally available to public school systems. Private schools offer the advantages of smaller classes, under twenty students in a typical elementary classroom, for example; a higher teacher/student ratio across the school day, greater individualized attention and in the more competitive schools, expert college placement services. Unless specifically designed to do so, private schools usually cannot offer the services required by students with serious or multiple learning, emotional, or behavioral issues. Although reputed to pay lower salaries than public school systems, private schools often attract teachers by offering high-quality professional development opportunities, including tuition grants for advanced degrees. According to elite private schools themselves, this investment in faculty development helps maintain the high quality program that they offer. Some examples of successful private schools are Deerfield Academy, Phillips Academy Andover and St Paul’s School.

Home schooling. Parents select moral or religious reasons for home schooling their children. Most homeschooling advocates are wary of the established educational institutions for various reasons. Some are religious conservatives who see nonreligious education as contrary to their moral or religious systems, or who wish to add religious instruction to the educational curriculum (and who may be unable to afford a church-operated private school, or where the only available school may teach views contrary to those of the parents). Others feel that they can more effectively tailor a curriculum to suit an individual student’s academic strengths and weaknesses, especially those with singular needs or disabilities. Still others feel that the negative social pressures of schools (such as bullying, drugs, crime, and other school-related problems) are detrimental to a child’s proper development. Parents often form groups to help each other in the homeschooling process, and may even assign classes to different parents, similar to public and private schools.

3. Post-secondary (higher) education in the USA

The U.S. higher education system is characterized by accessibility, diversity, and autonomy and is known for both its size and quality. The federal government has no jurisdiction or authority over the recognition of educational institutions, members of the academic professions, programmes or curricula, or degrees or other qualifications. Nearly all U.S. postsecondary institutions are licensed, or chartered, by a state or municipal government to operate under the ownership of either a government (if public) or a private corporation (if independent), and may be for-profit or not-for-profit enterprises. Religious institutions are considered independent, or private.  Quality assurance is achieved via the system of  voluntary accreditation by specific accrediting agencies that are recognized by the U.S. Secretary of Education and meet the standards for membership in the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA). Accreditation is a self-regulating process of quality control engaged in by the U.S. postsecondary education community to ensure minimum standards of academic capability, administrative competence, and to promote mutual recognition of qualifications within the system.

3.1. Types of USA colleges and universities^[3]*

The “Ivy League” universities

The Ivy League is a specific group of eight academic institutions. These schools are Brown, Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, Harvard, University of Pennsylvania, Princeton, and Yale.

The league was formed in the 1940s by the presidents of the eight schools to foster intercollegiate football competition “in such a way as to maintain the values of the game, while keeping it in fitting proportion to the main purposes of academic life”.

The characteristics of Ivy League schools include relatively small undergraduate populations, large endowments, prestigious academic reputations, and consistent ranking among the top 15 U.S. universities with the highest tuition fees in the country.

Public universities

Large public universities in the United States, also referred to as state universities, are closely identified with and supported by the states in which they are located.

Typically, universities of this type enroll tens of thousands of students. They produce the majority of graduate and professional degrees in the country, as well as a significant number of undergraduate degrees.

Public universities play a critical role in regional economic, cultural, and civic development, and many, such as the University of Minnesota, are deeply involved in advancing knowledge and technology through research. These universities are among the major research universities in the United States and frequently have major involvement in international programs around the world.

The level of research intensity varies greatly among state universities. Competitive research grants and contracts awarded to the most prestigious public universities typically amount to hundreds of millions of dollars each year. There is also great variation in the level of support from the states. State universities with large research budgets typically receive 10 to 30 percent of their budgets from the state in which they are located. The remaining portion of their budget comes from tuition and fees, grants/contracts, and gifts.

Some traditions of public universities in the United States are quite different from those in other countries. Even at these state-supported institutions, students have traditionally paid for part of their education through tuition and fees, and these costs to students are increasing. Today the average student takes out loans in order to help pay for his or her education. Private fundraising plays an increasingly important role in funding projects, scholarships, and positions at public universities. Finally, intercollegiate athletics attract intense interest from students, alumni, and members of the general public, and athletic events generate additional revenue.

Small Liberal Arts Colleges

Small Liberal Arts Colleges are undergraduate institutions of higher education in the United States. Generally, a full-time, four-year course of study at a liberal arts college leads students to a Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science degree.

They are known for being residential and for having smaller enrollment, class size, and teacher-student ratios than universities. The colleges are either coeducational, women’s colleges, or men’s colleges. Some are historically black colleges. Some are also secular (or not affiliated with a particular religion) while others are involved in religious education. Many are private. The focus is on the student, not the faculty; he/she is heavily involved in his/her own education. There are no passive ears; students and faculty work so closely together, they even coauthor publications. Teaching is an act of love. There is not only a mentor relationship in class but professors become hiking companions, intramural teammates, dinner companions, and friends. Learning is collaborative rather than competitive; values are central; there is a strong sense of community. They are places of great synergy, where the whole becomes greater than the sum of the parts. Aspirations are raised, young people are empowered.

Technical institutes

These are schools specializing mainly in engineering and sciences and particularly noted for research and graduate programs.

The undergraduate colleges of these schools also offer a variety of liberal arts courses along with their technical subjects.

Among the USA technical instututions are the Massachussets Institute of Technology, California Polytechnic Institute, Georgea Institute of Tecnology, Worcester Polytechnic Istitute and others.

Denominatinal or religiously-affiliated schools

These are the higher educational establishments formed and administered by religious groups and organizations. They are not limited in admission, however, to memebers of the religious group concerned. Among the schools in category are Notre Dame and Georgetown (Catholic), Brandeeis and Yeshiva (Jewish), Brigham Young (Mormon), Southern Metodist University (Methodist), Earlham (Quaker).

Community colleges

Community colleges are two year, Associate Degree-granting colleges that offer a wide range of undergraduate courses. If one wishes, after two years, one can transfer to an American university to complete an additional two years and achieve a Bachelor’s Degree. Community colleges combine good academic credentials with excellent facilities. Academic instruction takes place in classes which average around 25 students, with teaching provided by professors who are dedicated to student success.

A number of important factors help account for the success of community colleges. The first is cost. Community colleges are less expensive to build, maintain and operate. Generally community college campuses are spartan and functional. Few have student residences or athletic teams and stadia; a cafeteria and bookstore housed in a portion of an academic building often substitute for the multi-storied student union buildings that are common on four-year and university campuses.

With reduced infrastructure and personnel costs, community colleges charge substantially less tuition. On average in 1995-96, community college in-state tuition was 44 percent of that at four-year public institutions ($1,245 compared to $2,848).

In addition to low tuition, a second factor fostering the growth of enrollment at community colleges is geographic access. Many community college systems were designed to bring higher education within reach of commuter students who work part-time.

3.2. University level studies

3.2.1. University level first stage: Associate’s Degree, Bachelor’s Degree (undergraduate degrees).

The Associate degree is the first academic or professional degree that can be awarded in U.S. postsecondary education. Holders of this degree may apply to enter higher degree programmes at the Bachelor’s level, but are not qualified to apply directly for advanced (graduate) studies programmes. Programmes of study for this degree are usually designed to take 2 years of full-time study, but some take longer to complete. Those who pursue this degree on a part-time basis also take longer than 2 years to complete their studies.

Types of associate’s degrees are: Associate of Arts (AA); Associate of Science (AS).

The Bachelor’s degree is the second academic degree that can be awarded in U.S. postsecondary education, and is one of two undergraduate (first) degrees that qualify a student to apply to programmes of advanced (graduate) study (the other such degree is the first-professional degree). Programmes of study for this degree are designed to take between 4 and 5 years, depending on the field of study. Honours programmes are offered by many institutions that award the Bachelor’s degree. (These generally require the completion of additional requirements such as preparation of an undergraduate thesis, honours paper or project, advanced coursework, or special examinations). This allows to indicate the level of academic distinction with which an academic degree was earned – cum laude (“with honor”), magna cum laude (“with great honor”), summa cum laude (“with highest honor”)^[4]*. The honor is typically indicated on the diploma.

Most students earn one of two types of Bachelor’s degrees: Bachelor of Arts (BA); Bachelor of Science (BS).

3.2.2. University level second stage: Master’s Degree.

The Master’s degree represents the second stage of higher education and is the first advanced (graduate) degree. U.S. Master’s degrees may be taught (without thesis) or research (with thesis) and may be awarded in academic or professional fields. Most Master’s degrees are designed to take 2 years of full-time study, although the time may vary depending upon the subject, the preparation achieved by the student at the undergraduate level, the structure of the programme, and whether the degree is pursued on a full- or a part-time basis. Research-based Master’s degrees generally require completion of a series of advanced course and seminar requirements, comprehensive examinations, and an independent thesis.  Non-research Master’s degrees generally require completion of a special project as well as coursework and examinations. Both types of Master’s degree also require the satisfaction of special requirements (such as linguistic or quantitative skill) or a combination.

The subject one studies will determine the type of Master’s degree one will earn, such as a: Master of Arts (MA); Master of Science (MS); Master of Business Administration (MBA)

3.2.3. University level third stage: Research Doctorate:

The Research Doctorate represents the third and highest stage of higher education in the United States and may be awarded in academic disciplines and some professional fields of study. This degree is not awarded by examination or coursework only, but requires demonstrated mastery of the chosen subject and the ability to conduct independent, original research. Doctoral programmes require intensive study and research in at least one subfield and professional level competence in several others. Following a series of research seminars designed to prepare the individual research proposal, come candidate examinations (covering at least two subfields in addition to the field of research focus, one of which must be in a subject outside the doctoral student’s own faculty but related to his/her research). If the candidate examinations are passed at a satisfactory standard (excellent or higher), the student is advanced to candidacy for the doctorate and selects a research committee of senior faculty who will approve the dissertation topic, monitor progress, and examine the student when the research is finished. The conduct of research and preparation of the dissertation can take anywhere from one to several years depending on the chosen subject, available research funding, and the location of the research. When the dissertation is finished and approved as a document by the chair of the research committee, that individual convenes the full committee plus any outside faculty and public guests and presides over the candidate’s oral defense of the dissertation. An unanimous vote of the research committee and examiners is generally required to award the doctorate. Most doctoral degrees take at least 4 or 5 years of full-time study and research after the award of a Bachelor’s degree or at least 2 to 3 years following a Master’s degree. The actual time to obtain the degree varies depending upon the subject and the structure of the programme. Research Doctorates are awarded in the academic disciplines and for theoretical research in some professional fields. The most common of such degrees is the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). There are a variety of equivalent degree titles used in some institutions and disciplines.

3.3. Learning process in American universities

3.3.1. Academic callendar

Depending on the university, the academic year starts sometime from late August to mid-September. There are two ways in which the academic year can be organised in US universities:

• semesters:

Most universities use the semester system where there are two major periods of study in each academic year – Fall and Spring. There are 16 or 17 weeks of study in each semester. There may also be a shorter optional period of study in the summer.

• quarters:

Some universities use the quarter system where there are four 10 week study periods (or quarters) during the year. You are usually expected to attend three quarters, but may attend all four to graduate sooner. These are sometimes also called “trimesters”.

3.3.2. The US credit system

Course work is measured in “units” or ”credit hours”. Generally, a class that meets for three hours of lectures or discussion a week carries three units of credit – one hour of undergraduate credit means one hour of lecture and two hours of homework, whereas one hour of graduate credit means one hour of lecture and five hours of homework. An average class-load at the Bachelor’s degree level is about 15 units per semester, which means about 45 hours of attendance and study are expected each week. At the graduate level the average class-load is about nine units per semester, so about 54 hours of attendance and study are expected each week.

When referring to “units” or “credit hours” people are generally talking about units in a semester system. Each unit in a quarter system equals 2/3 of a semester-unit. So a student who completes 30 semester-units each year in a semester system is doing the same amount of work as a student who completes 45 quarter-units.

3.3.3. Teaching and learning styles

Most classes are lectures and discussion groups (seminars). In larger institutions where lectures are given to hundreds of students at a time closed-circuit television is often used. Seminars are usually held for a small number of students: students often work on individual projects and report them to the group.

Many universities offer individualized-tudy or self-directed courses, which have no formal classroom sessions. Students work independently on assignments outlined by course materials. They complete the work in their own pace, under the guidance of a faculty member. Learning aids, such as laboratory boths, computers, etc. are provided to such students.

3.3.4. System of grading

The most commonly used index in the U.S. educational system uses five letter grades. Historically, the grades were A, B, C, D, and F:

• A=Excellent (four grade points).
• B=Good (three grade points).
• C=Average (two grade points).
• D=Below average (one grade point).
• F=Failing (zero grade points).

Some schools also offer intermediary grades, the grading scale being A+, A, A-, B+, B, B-, C+, C, C-, D+, D, D- and F. Students securing “Grade F” in any course(s) will require to redo the course before starting advanced courses. However, many graduate students consider a grade below “C” unacceptable as it could affect campus placements.

In addition to the above regular grades, certain universities offer grades such as:

IP – In Progress:

An IP grade means that the student has not completed all the portions of a multi-portioned class that is taken over multiple semesters to earn the regular grade. The IP would be changed to regular grade once all the portions are completed.

NC or NIC- Not Complete or Incomplete:

This grade indicates that the student has missed some exams, assignments or homework that are important to evaluate performance.

W – Withdrawn:

This grade indicates that the student has decided not to enroll for the course after attending the classes for more than a predetermined period.

3.3.5. Cost of tuition in American universities

The cost of attending an American university varies widely by institution, from approximately $4,000 to nearly $30,000 per year for tuition (course fees), room, and board (meals). Public colleges and universities have lower (in-state) tuition rates for students who are residents of that state, while students who are residents of other states or countries pay higher (out-of-state) tuition rates. Private colleges and universities in America generally have higher tuition rates than public schools, but they charge the same tuition for in-state and out-of-state students.

You must also consider the cost of books, living expenses, travel, and health insurance.

Health insurance can be a major expense, although some universities have their own health plans.

Before enrolling at an American college or university, you will be required to show proof of financial support. For most universities, this means having enough money to pay for all of the above expenses for one full year.

3.3.6. Scholarships and financial aid for students

Financial aid is often given based on need, allowing those who could not otherwise afford an education to enroll in college. However, several types of financial aid (grants, scholarships, loans) are not based on need. These kinds of aid allow students who don’t qualify for need-based assistance to receive financial aid for college.

An education loan is a form of financial aid that must be repaid, with interest. Education loans come in three major categories: student loans (e.g., Stafford and Perkins loans), parent loans (e.g., PLUS loans) and private student loans (also called alternative student loans). A fourth type of education loan, the consolidation loan, allows the borrower to lump all of their loans into one loan for simplified payment. A recent innovation is peer-to-peer education loans.

Undergraduate scholarships and graduate fellowships are forms of aid that help students pay for their education. Unlike student loans, scholarships and fellowships do not have to be repaid. Hundreds of thousands of scholarships and fellowships from several thousand sponsors are awarded each year.

Generally, scholarships and fellowships are reserved for students with special qualifications, such as academic, athletic or artistic talent. Awards are also available for students who are interested in particular fields of study, who are members of underrepresented groups, who live in certain areas of the country or who demonstrate financial need.

An education grant is an agreement that provides funds to an educational institution or other nonprofit organization in order to capture student interest and/or improve student performance in science, mathematics, technology or related fields.

3.3.7. The student body

A first-year student in college, university is called a freshman (slang alternatives that are usually derogatory in nature include “fish”, “fresher”, “frosh”, “newbie”, “freshie”, “snotter”, “fresh-meat”, etc.)rare.

A sophomore is a second-year student. Outside of the U.S. the term “sophomore” is rarely used, with second-year students simply called “second years”.

A “junior” is a student in the penultimate (usually third) year and a “senior” is a student in the last (usually fourth) year of college, university. A college student who takes more than the normal number of years to graduate is sometimes referred to as a “super senior”.

Most higher educatinal establishments in the USA are coeducational, with both male and female students. Some admit students of only one sex.

3.3.8. The faculty

In American English, the word faculty has come to be used as a collective noun for the academic staff of a university: senior teachers, lecturers, instructors and/or researchers (graduate students who teach and do research part-time). The term generally includes professors of various rank: assistant professors, associate professors, and (full) professors, usually tenured or tenure-track in nature.

3.3.9. Administrative staff

The chief administrator of a college or university is in most cases a president or chancellor. Each college ar separate school of a university generally has an academic dean or director. He or she leads the faculty in preparing the course of study for the college or school, and takes part in university planning. Most universities and colleges are controlled by a board of trustees or a board of regents, which approve educational policies. They also appoint the chief administrative officer of the institution.

3.3.10. Campus

A campus is traditionally the land on which a college or university and related institutional buildings are situated. Usually a campus includes libraries, lecture halls, residence halls and park-like settings.

3.3.11. Graduation ceremony

The American Council on Education is the authority on academic regalia in the United States, and has developed an Academic Ceremony Guide that is generally followed by most institutions of higher learning. The ceremony guide and the related Academic Costume Code provide the core of academic ceremony traditions in the United States.

At many large U. S. institutions, where many hundreds of degrees are being granted at once, the main ceremony (commencement) involving all graduates in a sports stadium, amphitheater, parade ground or lawn, or other large – often outdoor – venue is usually followed, but sometimes preceded, by smaller ceremonies (diploma ceremony) at sites on or around campus where deans and faculty of each academic organization (college, academic department, program, etc.) distribute diplomas to their graduates. Another means of handling very large numbers of graduates is to have several ceremonies, divided by field of study, at a central site over the course of a weekend instead of one single ceremony. At large institutions the great number of family members and guests that each graduating student wishes to attend may exceed the capacity of organizers to accommodate. Universities try to manage this by allocating a specified number of graduation tickets to each student that will be graduating.

It is also common for graduates not to receive their actual diploma at the ceremony but instead a certificate indicating that they participated in the ceremony or a portfolio to hold the diploma in. At the high school level, this allows academic administrators to withhold diplomas from students who are unruly during the ceremony; at the college level, this allows students who need an additional quarter or semester to satisfy their academic requirements to nevertheless participate in the official ceremony with their cohort before receiving their degree.

At most colleges and universities in the US, a faculty member or dean will ceremoniously recommend that each class of candidates (often by college but sometimes by program/major) be awarded the proper degree, which is then formally and officially conferred by the president or other institutional official. Typically, this is accomplished by a pair of short set speeches by a senior academic official and a senior institutional official.

For students receiving an advanced degree, many colleges include a Hooding Ceremony in their commencement program. At Fordham University, graduates of a college self-hood en mass after the university president confers the degree upon them from the podium during commencement (doctorates are hooded upon the stage). The hood is a part of traditional academic dress whose origins date back many centuries. Today, the hood is considered by some to be the most expressive component of the academic costume. The hood’s length signifies the degree; with the institution’s colors in the lining and a velvet trim in a color that signifies the scholar’s field. Today’s hoods have evolved from a practical garment to a symbolic one, and are worn draped around the neck and over the shoulders, displayed down the back with the lining exposed.

A graduation or commencement speech, in the U.S., is a public speech given by a student or by alumnus of a university to a graduating class and their guests. Common themes of the graduation speech include wishing the graduates well in the “real world”, cautioning that the world of academe is a special place where they were taught to think (a common variation contradicts this view). Most recently, the trend has been to find a celebrity (often one with no apparent connection to the specific institution or education in general) or a politician to deliver the speech. A notable exception is the annual Columbia University Commencement, at which the tradition has been that only the current university president shall give the commencement address. Though there is only one commencement, individual colleges and schools of Columbia often invite a speaker at separate graduation ceremonies held earlier or on another day, however.

4. Teacher training in the USA

4.1. Training of pre-primary and primary/basic school teachers

Requirements for education and certification (licensure) of early childhood (nursery, kindergarten, preschool) and elementary (primary) teachers are set by state governments which require multiple exams (subject matter, etc.) prior to entering teacher education and again following completion of teacher education but prior to certification. While state regulations vary, there is a growing uniformity inspired in part by the federal No Child Left Behind law’s requirements for having a highly qualified teaching staff. The basic requirement is completion of a prescribed programme of studies at the undergraduate (bachelor’s) level in order to qualify for entry-level certification, plus satisfactory completion of a supervised practicum and the passing of qualifying examinations. Pre-professional undergraduate studies must be completed at an accredited institution in nearly all states. While the initial certification may be achieved with a bachelor’s degree, most states offer higher levels of certification based on experience and additional education, and many teachers at this level already possess, or soon earn, a master’s degree. Continuing professional education is required in order to maintain certification.

4.2. Training of secondary school teachers

The basic pre-certification requirements for secondary teachers are the same as for elementary school teachers. A major difference is that secondary school teachers are certified as competent in one or more academic or vocational subjects and spend their careers concentrating on these subjects, whereas elementary school teachers – especially for the lower grades – may be comprehensively certified to teach the full primary course or may specialize, particularly if teaching in the more differentiated upper elementary/middle school grades. All States certify teachers according to subject specializations as well as grade levels/ranges. Special education teachers are trained in most States in specialized programmes at both the undergraduate and graduate levels and are also separately certified. Special education teachers are also certified according to specialty, e.g. education of the deaf, education of the visually impaired, etc. as well as the degree of severity of the handicap with which they are trained to work. While the minimum academic requirement is a Bachelor’s degree in special education or a related field (such as developmental psychology), most teachers possess a Master’s degree and many earn a higher qualification called an Education Specialist degree. Specialized non-instructional personnel must also be certified in most U.S. States; they include school administrators, school counsellors, school health personnel (psychologists, nurses), school librarians, supervisory teachers and curriculum specialists^[5]*.

4.3. Training of higher education teachers

Higher education faculty are expected to possess the necessary expertise and qualifications to teach and, where applicable, to conduct research and consult in the discipline or professional field of their specialization. The general requirement is either a terminal research degree (PhD or equivalent) in the subject of specialization or, for some professional and clinical faculty, the appropriate professional qualification plus a record of successful practice and applied research.

Glossary

Comprehension

Exercise 1. Fill in the table:

Exercise 2. Answer the following questions about school education in the USA:

1. What are the three levels of governmental control over education in the US?
2. What is the compulsory age of school education in the USA?
3. What is difference between public, private and home schools?
4. How can the school year be organised?
5. What subjects are taught on the primary education level?
6. What subjects are taught on the intermediate level?
7. What are the required subjects on the high-school level?
8. What are the electives? What are the most common types of electives offered by high schools?
9. What are the most common extracurricular activities in US schools?
10. Do the American students have pass a graduation examination?

Exercise 3. What role does the following play in the universities and colleges admission system:

• high school transcript
• GPA
• letter of recommendation
• College Entrance Examination Board and American College Testing Program
• SAT and ACT
• Advanced Placement Program and International Baccalaureate
• interview

Exercise 4. Characterise the following types of American colleges and universities, name some of the institutions belonging to each group:

• The Ivy League
• “Public” Universities
• Small Liberal Arts Colleges
• Technical Institutes
• Denominational or Religiously-Affiliated Schools
• Community or Junior Colleges

Exercise 5. Fill the table with information about university degrees in the USA:

Exercise 6. Answer the following questions about the learning process in American universities:

1.  Describe the three systems used to structure the academic year.
2. What is a credit? What are the advantages of the credit-based system of education?
3. What is the difference between graduate and undergraduate study?
4. What learning styles are used in American universities?
5. What is the most widely used system of grading in the US universities?
6. What is the cost of tuition in American universities?
7. What kinds of help can a student receive towards their tuition fees?

Exercise 7. Fill in the blanks with the words from the boxes

funds            loans         taxes        scholarships         student fees        federal funds 

a. Funding. All universities and colleges receive (1)________ from a variety of sources. Private colleges depend primarily on (2)__________ and on endowments and gifts. Public institutions also have these sources, but depend mainly on state and local (3)_________ for operating funds. Both public and private institutions may receive (4)_________for research activities. The federal government distributes aid among colleges and universities according to various formulas based on the number of students who receive (5)_________ and (6)_________, and on the enrollment of graduate students and veterans.  

board of regents    chancellor      academic dean     president     board of trustees 

b. Management. In most cases, a (7)__________ or (8)__________ is the chief administrator of a university or college. Other officials handle educational programs, registration, management of funds, and collection of tuition.  Each college or separate school of a university generally has an (9)___________ or director.  He or she leads the faculty in preparing the course of study for the college or school, and takes part in university planning. Most universities and colleges are controlled by a (10)_______________or a (11)______________, which approve educational policies. They also appoint the chief administrative officer of the institution.

assistant professors      scientists       chairman (x2)     teachers       research fellows  

         departments          teaching fellows

c. Faculty includes the (12)__________ of a college or university. A college's faculty is divided into (13)___________, each of which deals with one general course of study, such as English, mathematics, or physics. Its head is a (14)__________, who is usually a professor. Under the (15)__________ are other professors, associate professors, (16)______________, and instructors. Some departments also have (17)______________ or (18)_____________. These are graduate students who teach or do research part-time. Some faculties include (19)____________ or other workers whose main activity is research, not teaching.

freshman         coeducational       graduates (x2)       junior        sophomore       senior

undergraduates (x2)

d. The student body of a university or college is divided into (20)________ and (21)__________.  (22)__________ have already received their bachelor's degree and are working more or less independently for a master's or doctor's degree. (23)____________ are studying for their bachelor's degree. The undergraduates belong to one of four classes – (24)_________, (25)_________ , (26)_________, and (27)__________ – according to year of study. Most institutions are (28)__________, with both men and women students. Others admit students of only one sex.

Exercise 8. Answer the following questions about teacher training in the US:

1. What types of courses do teacher-training programs include?
2. How does the curriculum of various years of study differ?
3. What documents are required to obtain a teaching job?
4. In what ways can teachers increase their professional level while working?

Self-Assessment

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the forms that pre-school education in the USA may take?
2. What is the main purpose of elementary school?
3. Schooling in the USA may be organized according to the following patterns: 6+3+3; 6+2+4; 8+4; 6+6. What is the difference?
4. What are the main characteristics of secondary schools in the USA?
5. What are the admission requirements to colleges and universities in the USA?
6. What degrees are offered by institutions of higher education in the USA?
7. What is the difference between colleges and universities?

Exercise 2. Explain the meaning of the words in glossary.

high school

residential college

community college

graduation gown

senior college

athletic fee

resident tuition

credit hour

faculty

MA/MS thesis

junior college

vocational school

campus-collegiate university

tenure

full professor

undergraduate course

an Ivy Leager

the Seven Sisters

class of 1975

alumnus/alumni

sophomore

Exercise 3. Fill in the blanks.

1. Keith is an unknown quantity: the results of his oral assessment may be pretty poor but the _________ will certainly praise him for his writing tests.

A) invigilators     B) associate professors     C) teaching assistants    D) markers

2. Being a brilliant student, my Mom graduated from Yale with honors.—What were her__________?

A) majors                  B) biases            C) affiliations          D) in-born abilities

3. Mike’s parents were thrilled to bits about his progress in Spanish. They even traveled to Spain so that their son could master his language code. Right now he has got a good command of five languages. His Italian is a bit ______, though.

A) flowery                     B)rusty                        C) authentic              D) fluent  

4. Sheila can still get ____ in Russian, `cause she spent three years in Moscow working at her thesis under professor Dobronravova.

A) by                  B)                    off                   C) out                 D) away

5. We were in the same class and in the same group. That’s why I know perfectly well that he could often bluff his way through without any revision for the exams. –It’s amazing! Could I have a look at your ____ ring?

A) wedding                          B) signet                    C) engagement                    D) class

6. My second cousin is not an avid reader, though he passed all his exams in World literature easily and graduated from High School with flying

A) colors                    B) grades                    C) marks                          D) performance

7. I haven’t seen the two of my group mates for ages. Last year they were also conspicuously absent at our ____________ event.

A) fashion                        B) sports                    C) students                D) alumni      

8. “_______________: principle is of crucial importance if you want to get life tenure.

A) “Live or die”      B) “Publish-or-perish”    C) “Play rough or take your ball and go home”

Exercise 4. Fill in the chart with the information needed about the Ivy-League Universities.

Exercise 5. Project work. Prepare the report on the topic: “Higher Education in the USA: pros and cons”.

Further Reading

1. Higher education in the United States: An encyclopedia / [ed. James Forest and Kevin Kinser]. – N.Y. ABC-Clio, 2002. – 831 p.

Lecture 1

🡪 Prehistoric Britain. Celtic and Roman Britain

Prehistoric Britain. Man lived in what is now called the British Isles (see map 1) long before it broke away from the continent of Europe after the end of the last Ice Age.

Map 1 ( UK)

The first evidence of human life is a few stone tools dating from the Paleolithic period about 250 000 BC. With the end of the Ice Age the climate on the Isles became warmer so time came for a change of the lifestyle. This change is known as the Neolithic revolution and was brought about by migrants from the Mediterranean, called the Iberians, around 3000 BC. Instead of hunting and food gathering they could grow corn crops and keep domestic animals.

During the Bronze Age ( after about 2000 BC) new groups of people arrived in south-east Britain from Europe. This race is known as the Beaker people because of the pottery found in their graves (see picture 1). The dominating type of the settlement now was a fortified hill-fort (see picture 2) – an enclosure often on top of a hill.

Picture 1 (a beaker)

Picture 2 (a hill-fort)

The BC people left behind the village of Scara Brae, communal burial places, barrows (see picture 3), and a number of henges, of which the most famous is the Stonehenge (see picture 4).

Picture 3 (a barrow)

Picture 4 (Stonehenge)

*Stonehenge was built on Salisbury Plain some time between 3050 and 2300 BC. It is one of the most famous and mysterious archeological sites in the world. One of its mysteries is how it was ever built at all with the technology of the time (the stones come from over 200 miles away in Whales). Another is its purpose. It appears to function as a kind of astronomical clock and we know it was used by the Druids for ceremonies marking the passing of the seasons.

Celtic Britain. The Celts of eastern Europe first arrived in Britain about 750 BC and brought what is known as the Iron Age – they knew the secret of mining iron ore and work this metal to produce stronger weapons and tools. They could also travel faster in iron-wheeled chariots drawn by horses. The social pattern of the Celts was military aristocracy, they lived in tribes which were sometimes at war with each other, sometimes trading peacefully. The fill-fort remained the center for local groups. The insiders of these hill-forts were filled with houses, and they became the simple economic capitals and small ‘towns’ of the different tribal areas into which Britain was divided. The Celts traded with Ireland and continental Europe. The priests, known as Druids, seem to have been particularly important members of the ruling class. We owe our first written description of the British Celts to Julius Caesar who came with his first information-gathering expedition in 55 BC. Despite the apparently lower form of civilization in Britain, neither of Caesar’s two expeditions (in 55 BC and 54 BC) was particularly successful.

Roman Britain. It was only in 43 AD, under Emperor Claudius, that the subduing of Britain began in earnest. Although the invasion met fierce resistance from some of the British tribes, their inability to cooperate left them no chances against the well-organized enemy. By the end of the first century AD Britain had been completely integrated into the empire as the province Britannia.

In 60 AD the Romans met with the greatest uprising of Celtic tribes led by Queen Boudicca of the Iceni. The rebels destroyed the Roman capital Colchester and the important trading center Londinium before they we stopped in pitched battle by the legions.

In subsequent years, successful campaigns by a series of Roman governors brought most of the island under imperial control once again. Many of the Celts started to take pride in being Roman citizens and wearing the Roman toga. In the south-west the country became very similar to the rest of the Roman Empire, with Latin as the official written and spoken language. One of the greatest achievements of the Roman Empire was its system of roads. It was agreed in the empire that to hold Scotland (or Caledonia as it was called by the Romans) was impossible, and Emperor Hadrian decided to fortify the frontier with an immense defensive wall, which ran all across the country.

By the fifth century the Roman civilization required protection from a new power came to dominate most of the continent: the migrating Germanic tribes. This threat made Rome pull more and more soldiers out of Britain and bring them home to defend the capital, leaving the Britons at the mercy of their own enemies: the Picts from Scotland, the Scots from Hibernia (Ireland), and the Saxons from across the North Sea – northern Germany and Denmark. In 409 the last Roman soldiers left Britain and a year later, in 410, Rome fell to the Goths leaving Britain completely out of its sphere of interest. The final mistake of the Britons was relying on Saxon mercenaries for the defense against the Picts, where Roman legions had previously been used.

Such was the devastating power of the later invasions that the Roman influence on the British culture was almost completely wiped out. Apart from the roads, city foundations and some other material evidence, the evidence of the four-century long Roman occupation has remained almost exclusively in the language.

Lecture 2

🡪 The Germanic Invasions: The Anglo-Saxon Conquest of Britain; Vikings Raids

The Anglo-Saxon Conquest of Britain. It was about 447 that the former Roman province of Britannia, already adrift from Rome, began to experience attacks by the Germanic tribes. This was an era for which contemporary written sources do not exist, that is why it is often called the Dark Ages. Over the next fifty years waves of Germanic tribesmen moved over to Britain in such numbers that they pushed the Romano-British population out of their native lands.

Most probably, many of the Celts were killed or turned into slaves and sold. Some remained and later mixed with the invaders. Finally, most of the Celts settled in the mountainous regions of the country, which the Anglo-Saxons called “Wales”. Some Celts were driven into Cornwall, where they later accepted the rule of Saxon lords. In the north, other Celts were driven into the lowlands of what is now Scotland. Another group of Celts fled to the British colony of Armorica on the continent, this region came to be called Brittany (Little Britain).

The name of the Roman colony “Britannia” disappeared and was replaced by “England” – the land of Angles. It is believed that the invaders were three powerful Germanic tribes – the Saxons, Angles and Jutes. They came from north-western Europe, mainly Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands. Historians are not sure why the Anglo-Saxons came to Britain. Some sources say that the Saxon warriors were invited to come to England to help keep out invaders from Scotland and Ireland. Another reason for coming to England may have been because their land often flooded and it was difficult to grow crops, so they were looking for new places to settle down and farm.

Having settled in England the Anglo-Saxon tribes established a number of kingdoms, known as the heptarchy: Kent (the Jutes), Essex, Sussex, Wessex (the Saxons), East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria (Angles) (see map 2).

Map 2 (Anglo-Saxon Britain)

Anglo-Saxon society consisted of three classes: a small class of nobles, free peasants, and slaves. All the free men were required to serve in the fyrd – the national army called out in times of crisis – and to pay a feorm to the king. Each of the kings had his own council of wise men, the Witan, to which they turned for advice or help in difficult matters. The Saxons divided the land into administrative areas called “shires”, or counties, most of which still preserve their boundaries, counties were further divided into areas called “hundreds”. This administrative system was for a long time the most efficient in Europe.

Anglo-Saxon society was mostly rural, with agriculture being the main occupation and source of living. Aristocratic life was strongly communal, the company in the royal hall provided the audience for heroic ballads recited by professional bards. The surviving fragments include one major epic, Beowulf.

The Anglo-Saxon were pagans, but in 597 Pope Gregory sent a mission, lead by a Roman monk named Augustine, to convert Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. Augustine was made the first Archbishop of Canterbury. With Christianity came literacy. The church also establishes monasteries, or “minsters”, which were places of learning and education. The story of transformation of England is set down in the book The Ecclesiastical History of the English People by the eighth-century monk known as the Venerable Bede.

The Anglo-Saxon ruled England for 500 years (100 years longer than the Romans). However, unlike the Romans, the Anglo-Saxons never “went home”; many people living in Britain today have Anglo-Saxon ancestors.

The Vikings Raids. Britain experienced another wave of Germanic invasions in the 8th century. These invaders known as Vikings, Norsemen (people from the North) or Danes came from three countries in Scandinavia: Denmark, Norway and Sweden. They are believed to have been searching for better land for their farms. For the next 200 years the Vikings would destroy much of the newly created Christian society by their lightning raids (see map 3).

Map 3 (Early Vikings attacks on Britain)

By the autumn of 870 the Danes conquered almost all of the country and were prepared to invade Wessex, the last of Anglo-Saxons kingdoms which remained independent. But here the opposition was better organized. At the battle of Ethendun (Edington) in 878, king Alfred’s forces soundly defeated the Vikings. However, Alfred accepted the Danish colonization of much of England, the territory given to the Vikings was termed the Danelaw.

King Alfred founded a court school to educate the nobles and encouraged the great scholars of his day to take up residence in England. English became the official written language. The King translated into English the History of the Venerable Bede and other works in Latin. He also began the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in the 890’s. Besides, Alfred established a legal code.

The Viking raids resumed with new force in 980s under the king of Denmark and Norway Harold Bluetooth. The crown of England then belonged to a weak ruler Ethelred the Unready. He paid the Vikings to go, imposing a heavy tax known as the Danegeld on everyone in the country. England was invaded by the Viking armies and Danish king Cnut (Canute) became king of England in 1016. Further development of events was greatly influenced by the intervention of Godwin, a wealthy nobleman from Sussex. After the death of Cnut’s sons, he moved rapidly to become the mentor of Ethelred’s son Edward. Controlled by Godwin, in 1043 Edward the Confessor, the last but one Anglo-Saxon king, was crowned in Winchester.

Lecture 3

🡪 The Medieval Britain (Early Middle Ages): The Norman Conquest. Feudal England

The Middle Ages (1066-1485) encompass one of the most turbulent periods in English History. Starting with the Battle of Hastings and the Norman Conquest – when William the Conqueror effectively took all of the lands from the Saxon English and gave them to French nobles. The English Middle Ages then saw the building of the great English castles, including the Tower of London, which helped the Normans to retain their hold on England. The start of the Crusades and the knights of the Middle Ages, including the founding of the Knights Templar. The Domesday Book and the Magna Carta. The Kings and Queens of the Middle Ages including Richard the Lionheart and great Plantagenet Kings from Henry II (1154-1189) to Edward III (1327-1377). The Hundred Years’ War between England and France. The Medieval Knights and Queens of the Royal Houses of Lancaster and York and the Wars of the Roses. The Middle Ages Feudal System and the terrible Black Death which really did plague the period of the Middle Ages.

The Norman Conquest of England in 1066 is described through the images of the Bayeux Tapestry – a large piece of heavy woven cloth made in Bayeux (France) in 11th -12th century which told the story of the Norman Conquest in pictures (see picture 5).

Picture 5 (the Bayeux Tapestry)

The story behind the invasion. The last but one Anglo-Saxon king, Edward the Confessor did not have an heir. Thus, a four-way conflict developed over who would become the next King of England. The English Witan, the traditional council of nobles, chose Harold Godwinson as the new king. The other claimants included: King Harold’s half-brother, Tostig Godwinson, Harald Hardrada, the King of Norway, and William, Duke of Normandy, a region is northwest France.

Both Tostig and Harald Hardrada invaded England to unseat King Harold, but both attacks failed. The third invasion, by William of Normandy, proved successful: Harold Godwinson and his army were defeated by the army of William, Duke of Normandy in the battle of Hastings (1066). William them marcher to London, which quickly gave in when he began to burn villages outside the city. He was crowned king of England in the Westminster Abbey on Christmas Fay, 1066.

The Norman Conquest was significant for several reasons. William was the new King of England, but he was also still the Duke of Normandy in France, which put him and his successors in the awkward position of ruling one country, while still serving as a vassal of another country’s ruler, in this case, the King of France. This dilemma set up England and France for hundreds of years worth of warfare as the ruling families of each kingdom battled for control of both countries.

Also, The Conquest created an ongoing link between the island of Great Britain (which includes England, Scotland, and Wales) with the European Continent through the connection of England and French Normandy. This connection can be seen in the development of English culture, language, history, and economics.

Life under the Normans. William the Conqueror became a savage and formidable ruler, by modern standards an exceedingly cruel one, but his methods produced the desired results and extinguished the fires of opposition. William gave lands to Norman nobles. The Saxons became an underclass whose language was the despised argot of the stable. French became the language of the new aristocracy.

William organized his English kingdom according to the feudal system. The land was owned by the king but it was held by others, called “vassals”, in return for a promise to serve him in war for up to forty days, and part of the produce of the land. On the other hand, each lord had responsibilities to his vassals. He had to give them land and protection. The people at the bottom of the society were called “serfs” and were in effect no more than slaves.

In order to know exactly who owned each piece of land and exactly how much taxes he could get, in 1086 William sent his men into every shire to conduct the first ever survey of its kind in Europe. Not surprisingly, it was most unpopular with people and they called in the Domesday Book. The last great change the Norman Conquest brought to England was the reform of the Church in which the Church obtained its own courts.

The reign of William II Rufus – William the Conqueror’s son – was very different from his father’s. He was a greedy man and was always in need of money to finance his extravagant lifestyle. His stringent demands and the new payments he introduced caused several rebellions. Besides, he shocked people by his treatment of the Church and his refusal to appoint a new Archbishop of Canterbury in order to collect the money of the archbishopric. He was further disliked for his rigid enforcement of the cruel forest laws. Ironically, Rufus met his end whilst hunting in the New Forest in August 1100.

William’s brother Henry seized the treasury at Winchester and persuaded local nobles to proclaim him king. Henry made his government more professional. Thanks to him the early twelfth century saw the appearance of the first national law courts, the rapid expansion of legal training and the growth of a new professional class of lawyers. His only son William died in 1120. So, Henry had to proclaim his daughter Matilda an heir. Yet neither Normans nor Anglo-Saxons wanted to be ruled by a woman, so on Henry’s death in 1135 his nephew Stephen of Blois was proclaimed king before Matilda could arrive to England from Anjou.

King Stephen was good-natured and courteous, but he was also lacking in resolution, did not enforce law and order and anarchy was the inevitable result. The lords recognized these weaknesses and built unlicensed castles from which they terrorized the people and against them Stephen could do nothing. Matilda did eventually invade England in 1139. There followed a long period during which the country was torn apart by civil war. Finally in 1153 it was agreed that Stephen could keep his throne only if Matilda’s son Henry could succeed him. King Stephen died in 1154 and was succeeded by Henry II, the first of the great Plantagenet dynasty.