Контрольная работа по дисциплине «Лексикология»

Министерство науки и образования

Федеральное государственное автономное образовательное учреждение

высшего профессионального образования

Российский государственный профессионально-педагогический университет

 Институт лингвистики

Кафедра германской филологии

Контрольная работа по дисциплине

«Лексикология»

Вариант № 5

Студентки группы ЗИА – 418С

Горбуновой Л.В.

Екатеринбург

2011

SEMANTIC STRUCTURE OF A WORD.

CHANGES IN SEMANTIC STRUCTURES

Study the following topics and complete the assignments bellow. Provide the corresponding précis.

1. Semasiology:

1. functional and referential approaches;
2. meanings of a word: grammatical, lexical, denotative, connotative, stylistic, emotional;
3. semantic structure of a word;
4. lexical and grammatical meanings;
5. lexical meaning and its structure;
6. syntactical aspect of lexical meaning: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations of a word;
7. meaning and context.

2. Polysemy:

1. causes of this phenomenon;
2. semantic structure of a polysemantic word;
3. polysemy and context;
4. lexico-semantic variant;
5. relations between lexico-semantic variants.

3. Methods of study of a semantic structure of a word:

1. distributional;
2. contextual (syntagmatic level);
3. componential;
4. substitution;
5. definition (paradigmatic level).

4. Changes in semantic structure of a word:

1. semantic changes and their causes;
2. types of semantic change: specialization, generalization, metaphor, metonymy, ellipsis, amelioration, pejoration, euphemy.

5. Homonymy:

3. the origin of homonyms;
4. classification of homonyms;
5. types of homonyms;
6. lexical variants.

Polysemy vs. Homonymy.

ASSIGNMENTS

1. Compare the semantic structure of the following words (use componential or contrastive analysis):

1. Use componential analysis: to stop – to cease;

Makers:

1. to stop – to cease:  imperatives, transitive, regular verbs; having the similar meaning.

1. to stop – to end an activity: Stop eating; you’ve had enough.||The bank

stopped payment on a check.

2. to cease - put an end to a state or an activity.

2. have the form of  past participle  – stopped, ceased.
3. have the form of  present participle – stopping, ceasing
4. can have the form pointing at the personal pronouns she, he, it – ceases, stops.
5. the co-occurrence of the verbs with animate- inanimate nouns:

3. Payments cease as soon as an individual starts a job. You cease our relations.
4. That phone never stops ringing. Doctors stopped the bleeding.

6. V to Inf: You never cease to amaze me. We stopped to take pictures.
7. VN: He ordered his men to cease fire (= stop shooting). The referee was forced to stop the game.
8. V-ing: The company ceased trading in June. Has it stopped raining yet?

Distinguishers:

1. the verb to stop has the meanings: NOT MOVE -  to end a movement: I put onthe brakes and the car stopped. We stopped for the night.

    to cease - have an end, in a temporal, spatial, or quantitative sense. 

2. the main meaning:

1. to stop – to no longer continue move.
2. to cease – to stop  happening or existing, to stop sth. from happening or

existing. BUT! to stop also has the similar meaning: NOT CONTINUE – Stop it! You’re hurting me. PREVENT- We need more laws to stop pollution. 

3. to stop has another meanings: 1) NOT FUNCTION – I stopped the tape. 2) STAY (informal) – I am not stopping. 3) Close hole – I stopped my ears. 
4. a stop -  noun having several different meanings: 1) an end to motion: The

train came to a stop. 2) an end to activity: There was a stop in work when lunchtime came. 3) a place for stopping: a bus stop 4) a pause along a trip, a visit: The truck makes stops at many stores.||a stop at my cousins apartment 5) a bank order not to pay a check 6) on a musical instrument, a hole one can cover 7) on an organ, a knob to pull to make a new or different sound 8) a point or mark in writing or printing intended to distinguish the sentences, parts of a sentence, or clauses; a mark of punctuation. 9). (Phonetics) Some part of the articulating organs, as the lips, or the tongue and palate, closed (a) so as to cut off the passage of breath or voice through the mouth and the nose (distinguished as a lip-stop, or a front-stop, etc., as in p, t, d, etc.)

 cease - is a noun only in the phrase `without cease'

5. to stop – phrasal verb 1) to stop at s.t.: to pause in a trip: The bus stops at

the corner. 2) to stop by s.t.: to make a short, sometimes unannounced visit: If youre in town, you should stop by our house for dinner. 3) to stop (dead) in ones tracks: to come to a halt and not move: When the cop shouted, Freeze! I stopped dead in my tracks. 4) to stop in: to visit for a short time: Our friend was passing by and stopped in to say hi. 5) to stop off or over in a place: to interrupt a trip: We were on our way to Hong Kong and stopped off in Hawaii for a few days. 

5) In spoken English, stop can be used with and plus another verb instead of with to and the infinitive, to show purpose: Let’s stop and look at the map.

6. to stop can be used in idioms: for example- to stop short of sth. – to be unwilling to do sth because it may involve the risk.

2. Use contrastive analysis: slender – skinny

These adjectives have the degree of comparison: slenderer – the slenderest, skinnier – the skinniest. They are both qualitative but slender also can be quantitative.

According to Ginsburg contrastive analysis reveals the features of sameness and difference in the lexical meaning.  Let’s make such analysis of the adjectives.

These adjectives have the similar main meaning: very thin. These words can be used with people and their bodies: he is skinny – she is slender; skinny legs – slender fingers.

But skinny is usually used in informal\spoken speech. Also the difference in the meaning of these words is contained in different evaluated ways.  

skinny – usually disapproval, thin especially in a way that you find unpleasant or ugly: skinny arms;

slender – approving,  thin in an attractive or graceful way: "she was slender as a willow shoot is slender”, her slender figure.

The difference of the words is in the other meanings of these words:

1. skinny  (of clothes) – designed to fit closely to the body: a skinny sweater. 

Slender also can be used with clothes in the meaning – narrow – slender gloves. But it is not usual word correlation. In this meaning (narrow) it can characterized other things: a glass with a slender stem. It is impossible to say for example - a skinny stem or a skinny line across the page.

2. only slender has the following meanings:

1. small in amount or size and hardly enough:  people with slender means

(= with little money); a slender pole.  

2. weak, feeble, slight, frugal:  a slender hope, slender means of support, a

slender diet.

It is not used skinny in these meanings even in spoken speech.

Comparing the semantic structure of the words I can say that there are enough differences between them: the sphere of usage;  approval \ disapproval.  Usually skinny is used in the meaning of thin, associated with bones and skin. It has only one additional meaning which can not be expressed by slender: confidential information about a topic or person  -  "he wanted the inside skinny on the new partner". So in one case these words are similar – when describe thin person. In other cases they have own independent meanings.

2. Present the semantic structure of the verb “REMEMBER”; use distributional and transformational analyses.

1. Remember is a regular verb, having different meanings:

1. SB\STH FROM THE PAST to have or keep an image in your memory of an event, a

person, a place, etc. from the past: This is Carls. Do you remember her? I don’t remember my first day at school.

2.  FACT\INFORMATION to bring to your mind a fact, piece of information that you knew: I can’t remember your name.

These meanings have the similar mark- the connection with past. 

3. STH. YOU HAVE to not forget to do sth; actually do what you have to do. Did you remember your homework?

4. IN PRAYERS to think about sb with respect, especially when saying a prayer: a church service to remember.

5. GIVE PRESENT: to give money, present: his grandfather remembered him in his will (= left him money).

6. Exercise, or have the power of, memory; "After the shelling, many people lost the ability to remember"; "some remember better than others".

7. Call to remembrance; keep alive the memory of someone or something, as in a ceremony; "We remembered the 50th anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz"; "Remember the dead of the First World War"

8. Phrasal verb – remember me to sb - mention as by way of greeting or to indicate friendship; "Remember me to your wife"

Different meanings of the word prove that it is polysemantic. All meanings are have the similar feature, but every has its own peculiarities and situation of usage.
2.  Remember can join the derivational affix – ance, expressing abstract noun. It is formed the noun remembrance – the act or process of remembering an event in the past or a person who is dead: He smiled at the remembrance of their first kiss.

3. Remember can have several functional affixes:

3. remembers – the mark of nouns or personal pronouns of the third person:

My aunt always remembers my birthday;

4. remembered  - the mark that the action had place in past: He still

remembered her as a lively teenager he’d known her before. It is the form of past participle. But remember usually is not used as PP. It can be used in passive voice especially in the meaning of idiom – be remembered for \as sth – to be famous or known for a particular thing that you have done in the past: He is best remembered as the man who brought jazz to England;

5. remembering – the form of present participle. It is usually used in written

speech\ fiction literature. But it is not used in progressive tenses.

So, the presence of a functional affix changes the distributional properties of a word so much that it can never be substituted for a simple word without violating grammatical standard.

4. The verb may be represented as a list of structural patterns in which it occurs:

V- ing – Do you remember switching the lights off before we come out.

Vto inf- Remember to call me when you have to arrive.

Notice the difference between remember doing smth. and remember to do smth. I remember posting the letter means “I have an image in my memory of doing it”, I remembered to post the letter – “I didn’t forget to do it”.

VN- Did you remember the poem?

VN – ing – I can still vividly remember my grandmother teaching me to play cards.

Vwh- Can you remember how much money we spent?

V – You were going to help me. Remember?

Vthat – Remember that we are going out tonight. 

5) It is appeared in 1300 year.  It is formed from Old French  remembrer (11century). It was built from Latin rememorari "recall to mind, remember".  The Romans prefix re- means the repetition of actions. For example:  

rewrite – to write sth again in a different way, usually in order to improve it or because there is some new information;

 reappear – to appear again after not being heard of or see for a period of time;

 repeat – to say or write again or more than once.

This prefix connected to the stem memorari "be mindful of" . I can see there the suffix of the adjective – y - «having the quantities of the pointed base». Ex.: rainy, heady, dirty.  I find the base of the word – it is memor. The word “memor” (mindful person) has the suffix –or pointing the person who do activity of verb – base – actor, director.

So the base of the word “REMEMBER” - men-/mon- "think" .

The above procedure is an elementary case of the transformational analysis, in which the semantic similarity or difference of words is revealed by the possibility of transforming them according to a prescribed model and following certain rules into a different form, called their transform. The conditions of equivalence between the original form and the transform are formulated in advance. With the help of etymology of the verb I pointed that the conditions to be fulfilled are the sameness of meaning and of the kernel morpheme.

1. State which of the words possesses wider polysemy and explain why:

   A word having several meanings is called polysemantic, and the ability of words to have more than one meaning is described by the term polysemy. So to state which of the presented words possesses wider polysemy, firstly I should point the semantic structure of these words and secondly I try o explain why it has so many meanings.

Note: all words will be looked only as nouns.  

ORDER
1. (often plural) a command given by a superior (e.g., a military or law enforcement officer) that must be obeyed: "the British ships dropped anchor and waited for orders from London"
2. a degree in a continuum of size or quantity:"it was on the order of a mile"; "an explosion of a low order of magnitude"

3. established customary state (especially of society): "order ruled in the streets"; "law and order" ;

4. logical or comprehensible arrangement of separate elements: "we shall consider these questions in the inverse order of their presentation";

5. a condition of regular or proper arrangement: "he put his desk in order"; "the machine is now in working order";

6. a legally binding command or decision entered on the court record (as if issued by a court or judge): "a friend in New Mexico said that the order caused no trouble out there";
7. a commercial document used to request someone to supply something in return for payment and providing specifications and quantitie: "IBM received an order for a hundred computers";
8. a formal association of people with similar interests: "he joined a golf club"; 9. a 9. body of rules followed by an assembly 

10. (usually plural) the status or rank or office of a Christian clergyman in an ecclesiastical hierarchy: "theologians still disagree over whether `bishop' should or should not be a separate order";

11. a group of person living under a religious rule: "the order of Saint Benedict" 
12. (biology) taxonomic group containing one or more families
13. a request for food or refreshment (as served in a restaurant or bar etc.): "I gave the waiter my order"

14. (architecture) one of original three styles of Greek architecture distinguished by the type of column and entablature used or a style developed from the original three by the Romans 
15. putting in order: "there were mistakes in the ordering of items on the list"

FELLOW

1. a boy or man: "that chap is your host"; "there's a fellow at the door";

2. a person who is frequently in the company of another: "drinking companions";
3. a person who is member of your class or profession:"he sent e-mail to his fellow hackers"
4. an informal form of address for a man: "Say, fellow, what are you doing?";

5. In an American college or university, a member of the corporation which manages its business interests; also, a graduate appointed to a fellowship, who receives the income of the foundation.

MAN

1. an adult male person (as opposed to a woman): "there were two women and six men on the bus"

2. someone who serves in the armed forces:  "two men stood sentry duty" ;
3. the generic use of the word to refer to any human being: "it was every man for himself"
4. all of the inhabitants of the earth: "all the world loves a lover”;
5. any living or extinct member of the family Hominidae;
6. a male subordinate: "the chief stationed two men outside the building";

7. an adult male person who has a manly character :"the army will make a man of you";
8. a male person who plays a significant role (husband or lover or boyfriend) in the life of a particular woman: "she takes good care of her man";

9. a manservant who acts as a personal attendant to his employer: "Jeeves was Bertie Wooster's man" 

10. one of the British Isles in the Irish Sea.

11. game equipment consisting of an object used in playing certain board games: "he taught me to set up the men on the chess board".

CHANGE.

1. an event that occurs when something passes from one state or phase to another: "the change was intended to increase sales";

2. a relational difference between states:"he attributed the change to their marriage";
3. the action of changing something: "the change of government had no impact on the economy";

4. the balance of money received when the amount you tender is greater than the amount due: "I paid with a twenty and pocketed the change" ;
6. a thing that is different: "he inspected several changes before selecting one";
7. a different or fresh set of clothes: "she brought a change in her overnight bag" ;
8. coins of small denomination regarded collectively: "he had a pocketful of change" ;
9. money received in return for its equivalent in a larger denomination or a different currency: "he got change for a twenty and used it to pay the taxi driver";
10. a difference that is usually pleasant: "it is a refreshing change to meet a woman mechanic" .

TEACHER

1. a person whose occupation is teaching;

2. a personified abstraction that teaches: "books were his teachers", "experience is a demanding teacher".

RHYME

1. An expression of thought in numbers, measure, or verse; a composition in 

verse; a rhymed tale; poetry; harmony of language. “Railing rhymes.” Daniel.
2. (Pros.) Correspondence of sound in the terminating words or syllables of two or more verses, one succeeding another immediately or at no great distance.
3. Verses, usually two, having this correspondence with each other; a couplet; a poem containing rhymes.

4. A word answering in sound to another word: female rhyme.

JOY

1. the emotion of great happiness: to dance with joy.

2. something or someone that provides pleasure, a source of happiness: "a joy to behold"; "the pleasure of his company"; "the new car is a delight"

FEDERATION

1. a country consisting of a group of individual states that have control over their own affairs: Russian Federation. 

2. a union of political organizations: the International  Tennis Federation;
3. the act of constituting a political unity out of a number of separate states: Many MPs re against federation in Europe.

As I noticed there are two words having more meanings, so they have wider polysemy. They are ORDER and MAN.

I think these words have more meanings because of linguistic (the influence of other words, mostly of synonyms) and extra-linguistic factors (different kinds of changes in a nation's social life, in its culture, knowledge, technology, arts lead to gaps appearing in the vocabulary which beg to be filled).  Their meanings are very different (man builds many compounds, expressing new meanings): general and private, specialized.  Some of their meaning can be used in informal, the another are in formal sphere. They express different emotions, approval, evaluation.  

Other words such teacher, rhyme, federation and etc. have only similar meanings, which usually refer to defined sphere or in the conditions (for example – fellow  is commonly used of men, but sometimes of women).  They are caused of one of the factors (for example teacher – extra linguistic – the way of word-formation).

Finally I can say that polysemy of words depend on the causes of their development of their meanings.

2. Give the nominative meanings of the following homonyms:

There is the basic meaning of the word.  It has a number of nominative and derivative meanings. Derivative meaning is related to the core meaning. Nominative meaning is more isolated and may give rise to homonyms.  Homonyms are words which are identical in sound and spelling, or, at least, in one of these aspects, but different in their meaning. Their identical forms are mostly accidental.  The following examples prove it.

LAP I  - the top part of legs that forms a flat surface when you are sitting down – There’s only one seat so you’ll have to sit on my lap. 

LAP II – movement once around a course "he drove an extra lap just for insurance"

LAP  III- touching with the tongue: "the dog's laps were warm and wet"

LAP IV - A piece of brass, lead, or other soft metal, used to hold a cutting or polishing powder in cutting glass, gems, and the like, or in polishing cutlery, etc. It is usually in the form of wheel or disk, which revolves on a vertical axis

LAP V - in games, the points won in excess of the number necessary to complete a game

MEANS I - how a result is obtained or an end is achieved: "a means of control";

MEANS II - considerable capital (wealth or income): "he is a man of means"

Also here I want to give the other example of homonyms:

MEANS I (third person Singular of the verb) – to have sth as a meaning – What does this sentence mean?

MEANS II (Common Case Plural of the noun ) - see above

As both grammatical and lexical meanings differ, I can describe these homonymous word-forms as lexico-grammatical.

QUID I - the basic unit of money in Great Britain, equal to 100 pence -
Can you lend me five quid?

QUID II - a wad of something chewable as tobacco

ROE I - fish eggs or egg-filled ovary; having a grainy texture – Taramasalata is made from cod’s roe, olive oil and garlic.

ROE II- the female of any species of deer.

WARD I - . a person who is under the protection or in the custody of another: The child was made a ward of court. 

WARD II - block forming a division of a hospital (or a suite of rooms) shared by patients who need a similar kind of care: "they put her in a 4-bed ward"

1. Classify the following homonyms:

For classification of the following homonyms I will use two main classifications according with

6. sound and spelling of homonyms;
7. the type of their meaning.

BOX  - TO BOX

BOX I – [bɒks] n – 1)  a container made of wood, cardboard, metal with a flat stiff base and slides and often a lid: a money box, a toolbox;

TO BOX II – [bɒks] v – to fight sb in the sport of boxing.

1. Homonyms Proper: they are the same in sound and spelling
2. Lexico-grammatical: grammatical and lexical meanings differ: boxes  

(Common Case Plural of the noun) and (he) boxes (third person Singular of the verb).

MINT - MINT

MINT 1 [mɪnt] n – a plant with dark green leaves that have a fresh smell and taste and are added to food and drinks to give flavor: roast lamb with mint sauce; 2. a sweet flavored with a type of mint: after-dinner mints.

MINT 2 [mɪnt] n – a place where money is made: the Royal Mint

1. Homonyms Proper: they are the same in sound and spelling.
2. Lexical: the part-of-speech meaning of the word and the grammatical

meanings of all its forms are identical. The difference is confined to the lexical meaning.

FINGER – TO FINGER

FINGER I ['fɪɳɡə] n – 1) one of the five long thin parts that stick out from the hand: She ran her fingers through her hair. 2) a long narrow piece of bread, cake, land – a finger of toast and etc.

FINGER II ['fɪɳɡə] v – 1) to touch and to feel sb.: Gary sat fingering his bread 2) to accuse sb. of doing sth illegal and tell the police about it: Who gingered him for the burglaries?

1. Homonyms Proper: they are the same in sound and spelling
2. Lexico-grammatical: grammatical and lexical meanings differ: fingers

(Common Case Plural of the noun) and (he) fingers (third person Singular of the verb).

FRY – TO FRY

FRY I [fraɪ] v – to cook sth in hot fat or oil: fried bacon

FRY II [fraɪ] n – very small young fish.

1. Homonyms Proper: they are the same in sound and spelling
2. Lexico-grammatical: grammatical and lexical meanings differ.

LIKE  - LIKE

LIKE I [laɪk] a - to find sb\sth pleasant, attractive or satisfactory, to enjoy: She is nice. I like her.  

LIKE II [laɪk] v – having similar qualities to another person or thing: a chance to meet people of like mind.

1. Homonyms Proper: they are the same in sound and spelling
2. Lexico-grammatical: grammatical and lexical meanings differ.

6. Explain the development of meaning of the following words:

Season, fame, inn, girl, knave, rascal, greedy, queen, timber, gossip.

There are different causes of development of meanings. The first group of causes is traditionally termed historical or extralinguistic. Here there are two ways for providing new names for newly created concepts: making new words (word-building) and borrowing foreign ones.

Meanings of words can also be developed due to linguistic factors. Linguistically speaking, the development of new meanings, and also a complete change of meaning, may be caused through the influence of other words, mostly of synonyms.

There are also different ways of development of a meaning. They are presented in the theoretical part of my work. But now I want to give some examples. Firstly, transference  - a meaning appears as a result of associating two objects (phenomena, qualities, etc.) due to their outward similarity. Secondly, specialisation and generalisation or widening of meaning.  Thirdly, meanings depending on the social attitude to the object named, connected with social evaluation and emotional tone, are called amelioration and pejoration of meaning,

Study the development of meanings of the following words and analyse it.

SEASON

In English this word appeared in 1300 year. It means "a period of the year," with reference to weather or work. It was borrowed from Old French seison (Moden French saison) "a sowing, planting," from Latin sationem (nom. satio) "a sowing" from past participle stem of serere "to sow". So we can see that the sense shifted from "act of sowing" to "time of sowing." In Old French this was extended to "season" in general (sowing season being the most important).

Firstly, the meaning of season appeared as a result of associating two actions. Secondly, it was generalisation combined with a higher order of abstraction than in the notion expressed by the earlier meaning. Also borrowings and sound changes take place in the development of the meaning.

FAME

In English it appeared in early 13century and meant "character attributed to someone". Then in late 13century it changed the meaning "celebrity, renown," from Old French fame "fame, reputation, renown, rumor," from Latin fama "talk, rumor, report, reputation," from PIE base *bha- "to speak, tell, say" .

The goddess Fama was the personification of rumor in Roman mythology. The Latin derivative fabulare was the colloquial word for "speak, talk" since the time of Plautus, whence Spanish hablar.

Firstly, the meaning of fame may be appeared as a result of the type of metonymy: the denomination after Roman goddess. Secondly, it was the carrying up one meaning of one part of speech to another. Also borrowing takes place in the development of the meaning.

INN

It was appeared from Old English inn "lodging, dwelling, house," probably from inne (adv.) "inside, within." Meaning "public house with lodging" is possibly 12century.  Meaning "lodging house or residence for students" is early 13century in Anglo-Latin, obsolete except in names of buildings that were so used.

Firstly, word – formation takes place (one part of speech- to another, transferring the meaning).  Secondly, we can watch the narrowing of meaning.

GIRL

It appeared in 13 century from gyrle "child" (of either sex), of unknown origin.  There is the following supposition. Girl does not go back to any Old English or Old Germanic form. It is part of a large group of Germanic words whose root begins with a g or k and ends in r. The final consonant in girl is a diminutive suffix. The g-r words denote young animals, children, and all kinds of creatures considered immature, worthless, or past their prime.

So in Middle English it had the meaning of "a small child of either sex". Then the word underwent the process of transference based on contiguity and developed the meaning of "a small child of the female sex", so that the range of meaning was somewhat narrowed. In its further semantic development the word gradually broadened its range of meaning. At first it came to denote not only a female child but, also, a young unmarried woman, later, any young woman, and in modern colloquial English it is practically synonymous to the noun woman (e. g. The old girl must be at least seventy), so that its range of meaning is quite broad.

KNAVE

It developed from Old Eglish cnafa "boy, male servant," common Germanic (cf. O.H.G. knabo "boy, youth, servant," Ger. knabe "boy, lad," also probably related to O.E. cnapa "boy, youth, servant," O.N. knapi "servant boy," Du. knaap "a youth, servant," M.H.G. knappe "a young squire," Ger. Knappe "squire, shield-bearer". The noun knave (О. Е. knafa) suffered an even more striking change of meaning as a result of collision with its synonym boy (linguistic cause).  Now it has a pronounced negative evaluative connotation and means "swindler, scoundrel". It is called pejoration or degradation; it involves a lowering in social scale connected with the appearance of a derogatory and scornful emotive tone reflecting the disdain of the upper classes towards the lower ones.

RASCAL

It appeared in early 14century from rascaile "people of the lowest class, rabble of an army," from Old French rascaille "outcast, rabble" (12c.), perhaps from rasque "mud, filth, scab, dregs". The singular form is first attested mid-15c.; extended sense of "low, dishonest person" is from 1580.

The development of this meaning is connected with the above mentioned “pejoration”.

GREEDY 

It went from Old English grædig (West Saxon), gredig (Anglian) "voracious," also "covetous," from P.Gmc. *grædagaz from base *græduz (cf. Goth. gredus "hunger," O.E. grædum "eagerly").

In Greek, the word was philargyros, lit. "money-loving." A German word for it is habsüchtig, from haben "to have" + sucht "sickness, disease," with sense tending toward "passion for."

In my opinion meanings of word is developed due to linguistic factor through the influence of other words

QUEEN

 It formed from Old English cwen "queen, female ruler of a state, woman, wife," from P.Gmc. *kwoeniz, ablaut variant of *kwenon (source of quean), from PIE *gwen- "woman, wife" supposedly originally "honored woman" (cf. Greek gyné "a woman, a wife;" Gaelic bean "woman;" Skt. janis "a woman," gná "wife of a god, a goddess" ).
The meaning depended on the social attitude to the object named, connected with social evaluation and emotional tone The development of meaning is connected with such process as amelioration - semantic shifts undergone by words, because their referents come up the social scale.

TIMBER

It is formed from Old English timber "building, structure," later "building material, trees suitable for building," and "wood in general," from P.Gmc. *temran (cf. O.Fris. timber "wood, building," O.H.G. zimbar "timber, wooden dwelling, room").  

It should be pointed that the meaning was developing through transference based on contiguity. It is example of a metonymy .

GOSSIP

It is formed from Old English  godsibb "sponsor, godparent," from God + sibb "relative". It is extended in Middle English to "any familiar acquaintance", especially to woman friends invited to attend a birth, later to "anyone engaging in familiar or idle talk". Sense extended 1811 to "trifling talk, groundless rumor."

This compound is altered out of all recognition.

7. Explain the changes of meaning of the words:

Broadcast, pip, team, spinster, smart, meat, journal.

The causes of semantic changes may be grouped under two main headings, linguistic and extralinguistic. Also there are different types of changes:  specialisation, generalisation and widening of meaning, a metaphor and a metonymy, amelioration and pejoration of meaning, etc. All these causes and types are presented in the theoretical part of my work.

Linguistic causes influencing the process of vocabulary adaptation may be of paradigmatic and syntagmatic character; in dealing with them we have to do with the constant interaction and interdependence of vocabulary units in language and speech, such as differentiation between synonyms, changes taking place in connection with ellipsis and with fixed contexts, changes resulting from ambiguity in certain contexts, and some other causes. The extralinguistic causes are determined by the social nature of the language.

In passing from general usage into some special sphere of communication a word as a rule undergoes some sort of specialisation of its meaning. The process reverse to specialisation is termed generalisation and widening of meaning. In most cases generalisation is combined with a higher order of abstraction than in the notion expressed by the earlier meaning. A metaphor is a transfer of name based on the association of similarity and thus is actually a hidden comparison If the transfer is based upon the association of contiguity it is called metоnуmy.  As to the euphemisms, that is referring to something unpleasant by using milder words and phrases so that a formerly inoffensive word receives a disagreeable meaning

Changes depending on the social attitude to the object named, connected with  social evaluation and emotional tone, are called amelioration and pejoration of meaning.

BROADCAST

It was formed in 1767 as adjective, in reference to the spreading of seed, from broad + cast (v.). Figurative use is recorded from 1785. Modern media use began with radio (1922, adj. and noun). As a verb, it was recorded from 1813 in an agricultural sense, 1829 in a figurative sense, 1921 in reference to radio. Broadcasting is recorded from 1922. This compound is altered out of all recognition.

From the etymological vocabulary we have known that the meaning of this word passes from general usage into some special sphere of communication. This type of changes has the name of specialisation or narrowing of the meaning.  The meaning was specialised and the word name fewer objects, i.e. have fewer referents.

PIP is the form of homonyms.

PIP 1 - "seed of an apple". It appeared in 1797, shortened form of pipin "seed of a fleshy fruit" (c.1300), from Old French pepin (13c.), probably from a root *pipp-, expressing smallness.

The origin of this homonym is shortening. The type of changes is the specialization. The meaning of word narrowed from the general (the part of fruit) to special (the part of apple). It can name fewer objects.  

PIP 2 - "disease of birds". It appeared in early 15century, probably from M.Du. pippe "mucus," from W.Gmc. *pipit (cf. E.Fris. pip, M.H.G. pfipfiz, Ger. pips).

In my opinion the changes of the meaning is connected with such type as metonymy. The transfer is based upon the association of contiguity. It is a shift of the meaning between the symptoms for the name of  the disease.  

TEAM

It was formed from Old English team "set of draft animals yoked together," from P.Gmc. *taumaz (cf. O.N. taumr, O.Fris. tam, Du. toom, O.H.G. zoum, Ger. Zaum "bridle"), probably lit. "that which draws". Applied to people in Old English, especially "group of people acting together to bring suit." Team spirit is recorded from 1928. Team player attested from 1886, originally in baseball.

Firstly we can see the narrowing the meaning: from the something drawn transfers into the name of set of draft animals. Then a metaphor takes place. It is a transfer of name based on the association of similarity and thus is actually a hidden comparison.

SPINSTER

It appeared in mid-14c. in the meaning "female spinner of thread" from Middle English spinnen + -stere, feminine suffix. Spinning commonly done by unmarried women, hence the word came to denote "an unmarried woman" in legal documents from 1600s to early 1900s, and by 1719 was being used generically for "woman still unmarried and beyond the usual age for it."

Firstly, there is the pejoration, the change, depending on the social attitude to the object named.  Then the sphere of its usage was narrowed (legal documents). So I can say about the specialization of the meaning.

SMART

It appeared from late Old English  smeart "sharp, severe, stinging," related to smeortan. Meaning "quick, active, clever" is attested from c.1300, probably from the notion of "cutting" wit, words, etc.; meaning "trim in attire" first attested 1718, "ascending from the kitchen to the drawing-room c.1880."  In reference to devices, "behaving as though guided by intelligence" first attested 1972. Smarts "good sense, intelligence," is first recorded 1968. Smart cookie is from 1948; smarty-pants first attested 1941.

Here there is the transference according with the similarity. Also the changes in the meanings of this word point at the narrowing of it in different spheres.

MEAT 

It was formed from Old English mete "food, item of food" (contrasted with drink), from P.Gmc. *matiz (cf. O.Fris. mete, O.N. matr, Goth. mats "food," M.Du., Du. metworst, Ger. Mettwurst "type of sausage").

Narrower sense of "flesh used as food" is first attested c.1300; similar sense evolution in French viande "meat," originally "food." Figurative sense of "essential part" is from 1901.
As it is easy to understand from the etymological analyses the type of changes is specialization \ narrowing in the general meaning: OE mete ‘food'>ModE meat ‘edible flesh’, i. e. only a particular species of food.

JOURNAL

It  appeared in 14c. in the meaning "book of church services" . It was formed from Anglo-Fr. jurnal "a day," from O.Fr. journal, originally "daily" (adj)7u. Sense of "daily record of transactions" first recorded 1560s; that of "personal diary" is c.1600, from a sense found in French.

The change in the meaning of this word is connected with generalization and widening of meaning. It is combined with a higher order of abstraction than in the notion expressed by the earlier meaning.

8. For each of the following words write two sentences: one illustrating the literal meaning of the word, the other – the metaphorical meaning. Use the dictionary for help.

Jungle, oasis, cool, flower, satellite, stomach, snip, splinter, lobby, crystallize.

JUNGLE

1. The area was covered in dense jungle.
2. It is a jungle out there – you’ve got to be strong to succeed.

OASIS 

1. We were glad to find the oasis abounding in plants and water in Sahara.
2. Only my room is an oasis of calm in our mad house.

COOL

1. Cool weather is forecast for the weekend. Store lemons in a cool dry place. My room is painted in cool greens and blues.
2. You look pretty cool with that new haircut.

FLOWER

1. The plant has a beautiful bright red flower. The roses are flower early this year.
2. Jane is a wonderful flower of our class. This step of her career was the flower in her life.

SATELLITE

1. The interview came live by satellite from Hollywood. The moon ia a satellite of earth.
2. He became a true satellite of his wife.

STOMACH

1. You shouldn’t exercise on a full stomach. The attacker kicked him in the stomach.
2. They had no stomach for a fight.

SNIP 

1. Make a series of small snips along the edge of the fabric.

2. It is a snip at only 25$.

SPLINTER

1. He has removed a splinter from his finger. The mirror cracked but did not splinter.

2. The party began to splinter.

LOBBY

1. We agreed to meet at a hotel lobby.
2. The gun lobbies are against any change.

CRYSTALLIZE

1. The salt crystallizes as the water evaporates.

2.  Our ideas began to crystallize into a definite plan. The final chapter crystallizes all the main issues.

3. He tried to crystallize his thoughts.

9. Explain both the literal and the figurative meanings of the metaphors:

1. He is a turncoat trying to return from Red China.

1) he is a person who betray his faith and try to return.

2)disapproval -  a person who leaves group\party to join one that has very different views.

2. The upshot of the discussion was that he quit his job.

1) the final result of something (for ex. a particular series of events).

2)

3. The riot was sparked by a rock-throwing incident.

1)  to cause something to start or develop, especially suddenly

2) the riot is compared with the fire which produce small flashes

4. He had a real blast last night. 

1) an explosion or a powerful movement of air caused by an explosion

2) a very enjoyable experience that is a lot of fun.

5. She certainly had a sunny disposition

1) she liked the sun

2)the natural qualities of a person’s character: she is a cheerful person.

6. It is time that we did something about down-at-the-heels housing.

1) looking less attractive and fashionable; may be  because of a lack of money

2)

7. Because it was a holiday, one a skeleton crew was on duty. 

1) a small group of people working together

2) a strange mix type of people (gang, swindlers and etc.)