Работы учеников

All my life is music.

Viktoriya Yurtaeva.

Music - it art, reflecting validity in sound art images, one of the forms of public ideology. Having by powerful force direct emotional effect, music during of all history of mankind plays a huge social, cultural and educational role. Leading composers are connected to progressive public movements, life, interests and aspirations people. Each nation differs by peculiar national features. Folk music, being improved by creative efforts of many generations of the people, reaches a high degree of art maturity. On the basis of riches of national music professional musical creativity of composers is developed. Rejection of music from advanced ideas epoch of national culture, national roots of art leads to it's to decline and degeneration. Idea emotional content of music is passed through sound art images, implemented in musical sounds. The basis of music is the tune. According to the way of performance music is divided into 2 main branches: instrumental and vocal. There are a great number of different styles of music, such as Jazz, Pop, Rock, Classic; and new musical directions. One of the new music directions is Rave. I prefer to listen to hard-rock and quieter music. Nowadays the number of music styles is growing, and every young person, who is fond of music can easily choose that style which appeals to him.

Music - is an important part of the life of each person. I would never think, that it could exert me so much. Perhaps, I like this kind of skill only owing to Linkin Park, my favorite group.
Linkin Park is perfectly a new way of making music and, at first sight of simple listener, is a very qualitative playing. Many people knew about this group after the song "One Step Closer":

Everything you say to me
Takes me one step closer to the edge
And I'm about to break
I need a little room to breathe
Cause I'm one step closer to the edge
And I'm about to break

The mixture of hip-hop, rock and electronic samples differs their music from other styles,  

separates it out from the grey crowd of new rock-groups. Their style is unique. It is one of the best their merits. Many people, listening to this music, enjoy it. You can't resist against the rhythm, your body will jump with the rhythmic bit. I wonder, but Linkin Park made the great step for the top of world music charts using a very intense texts and with out any profanity. It is difficult to find access to the floor of listeners in such short period of time, because it is the intense time in the music industry. Linkin Park can do it. Early this group called Xero (lately it was changed on Hybrid Theory), now we call them Linkin Park. The organizers of the group had to change the name of the collective, because there were some groups with the same titles.
Primarily the group consisted from four men: Mike, Rob, Bread and Joseph. They were looking for the second vocalist and sent a cartridge to Chester. He recorded his songs on it. The great opportunity was afforded to him to represent his occasions. He called them on the phone and all of the group was listening to the record of Chester, liked it very much and invited him in the group.

        This group is  unique for me. It impacts on me very much. When I am sad or feel lonely, I begin to listen to my favorite group and my frame of mind absolutely changes, I begin to smile and nothing can mutilate it. As for me, I open this group with the song called "Numb":

I've become so numb
I can't feel you there
Become so tired
So much more aware
I'm becoming this
All I want to do
Is be more like me
And be less like you

I like all of their songs, but the most interesting for me - is the song "Papercut". This song is about somebody, who lose the faint of himself, who can't find his way of living: 

It's like I'm paranoid looking over my back
It's like a whirlwind inside of my head
It's like I can't stop what I'm hearing within
It's like the face inside is right beneath my skin

I admire the creation of this group, the profound alimony of their texts and fantastic music delight me very much. Their texts help me to find good answers on many questions. For example, song "Crawling" describes a man with disturbed inward life. Or the song "Runaway" is about opening yourself. Song "In the End" tells us, that it isn't important, what you are doing, when you die, about the meaning of the life. And song "Pushing Me Away" is about broken family relationships.

I would like to tell about members of this band.

Name: Chester Charles Bennington

Nickname: Chazy Chaz

Instrument: Vocals

Some Interesting Facts about Chester 

Chester has a tattoo on his left calf muscle of the soldier with wings from the "Hybrid Theory" CD cover. The flames on his arms represent the Aries part of his fire sign. His left shoulder has a Piscean symbol and a Japanese Koi carp on his right. His back piece is six arms spread out and was done by his friend who said it was a visual representation of how Chester reaches out and grabs the audience. All of Chester's tattoos symbolize something. His left hand has his engagement finger tattooed and his wife, Samantha, has the same tattoo. They got tattoos because Chester couldn't afford a ring and his friend had a tattoo shop and did them for free.

When Chester was young, he'd sing around the house, dreaming he was the fifth member of Depeche Mode. Chester's career highlight so far is making the "One Step Closer" video. In airports Chester has to take off all his metal spike, bracelets, etc. and he has a little bag or something that he arranges them all on. They must be in the same place every time. Chester's first band was called Grey Daze in 1993. Grey Daze was actually pretty popular and getting airplay in the Phoenix, AZ area but they never got signed. Eventually Chester got tired and had to move on. Chester was also upset that he wrote the lyrics by himself while all the band members took credit.

Name: Robert Gregory Bourdon

Instrument: Drums

Some Interesting Facts about Rob 

Rob's previous day job was as a waiter. Linkin Park watch videos of themselves and Rob (according to Brad) never plays a part wrong, but he'll always point out if something's not up to par. Rob is the practice-perfect technical guru of the band. Linkin Park is not Rob's first band. He started playing in bands when he was around 13 years old and he'd play cover songs like Nirvana's 'Smells Like Teen Spirit' with his buddies. That's when he met Brad and they played for about a year. It was rock meets rap and funk, they were called 'Relative Degree'. They practiced a lot, played one show and then it fell apart. Rob likes to play the piano when he has time. He used to take classical lessons when he was young and was forced to keep going.

Name: Bradford Philip Delson

Nickname: Big Bad Brad

Instrument: Guitar

Some Interesting Facts about Brad 

Brad graduated from UCLA with a Bachelor's Degree in Communications. Brad and Phoenix were roommates in college. He didn't go to law school so he could pursue his career in the band. Brad calls himself "BIG BAD BRAD" or BBB, that's how he signs his name (BBB). Brad's first instrument was the trumpet. Brad's first band was the Pricks in 1994. Brad was also in a band with Rob. It was rock meets rap and funk, they were called 'Relative Degree'. They practiced a lot, played a show then it fell apart. The first time Brad heard 'One Step Closer' on the radio, it wasn't the full song, it was a clip of the song on a radio spot, and Linkin Park were all in the van together.

Name: David Michael Farrell

Nickname: Phoenix

Instrument: Bass

Some Interesting Facts about Phoenix 

After moving to CA, he joined a band in high school called 'Tasty Snax'. The band later changed their name to 'The Snax'. While Phoenix was with The Snax he transitioned from guitar to bass guitar and stayed with it ever since. Phoenix was the original bass player in Xero. Phoenix played with Xero until he decided to tour with The Snax for a year and a half & then came back to Linkin Park. Phoenix was taught how to play guitar by his mom, his greatest inspiration. Most inspirational to Phoenix is his older brother (Joe). Phoenix is also responsible for some of the song writing on the "Hybrid Theory" CD. Phoenix's most humiliating experience on stage is slipping and falling in front of everyone. Phoenix has played lots of instruments including the violin.

Name: Joe Hahn

Instrument: Turntables, Samples, Beats, & Sounds

Some Interesting Facts about Joe 

Joe has a split personality called Remy. Joe came up with the concept for the "One Step Closer" video. Joe and Mike both majored in illustration. They were both interested in painting and Joe stayed at the college for a year then he got into motion pictures. He worked on Sphere and Phantoms. He worked on monsters in movies. Joe was born in America, but his parents are Korean which makes him Korean.

Name: Michael Kenji Shinoda

Instrument: Vocals, Beats + Samples, Keyboards, Guitar

Some Interesting Facts about Mike 

He majored in Illustration but studied graphic design heavily. Mike got a job as a graphic designer right out of college. Mike designed the soldier on the "Hybrid Theory" cover. Mike & Brad met in 7th grade. Mike had to do his eighth term finals (at Pasadena art school) the same weekend Linkin Park did a showcase for about six record labels (exams at the same time when things started happening for the band...talk about a nervous breakdown). The first time Mike heard 'One Step Closer' on the radio was in Arizona. Mike took classical piano lessons for 10 years. He got sick of playing classical music though and moved into jazz then hip hop. Before Chester joined the band, Mike would do his parts and find friends to do the other vocals. I love Mike more then others.

It was the first album, which was produce in 1999. This album  

обладает меньшей популярностью отчасти из-за того, что на нем содержится всего 6 маленьких композиций.

This album was produce in 2000. The last album of Linkin Park called in tribute to the perfect name of Linkin Park. On the cove of it is represented the soldier with wings of damselfly - beautiful wings on the gross clothe. The main idea of this album is a mixture of hard music and emotional texts.  

2002

The next album - is an album of remixes on the songs from the album "Hybrid Theory".

2003

2004

And this album was made with the famous rapper Jay-Z.

In 2005 year Mike Shinoda recorded his new solo rap-album "The rising tied". But this album doesn't exert on joint creativity of the group. They continue to create their musical masterpieces.

Not long ago Linkin Park produced a new album "Minutes of midnight". This album is like no others. But widget and the song "What I've done" surprise me most of all. This song is about the problems of the mankind: drug addiction, disasters, wars, starvation in the countries of Africa and etc. When I had seen this widget, I began to look at these problems from the other angle, like it touched upon me.          

            Report 

  ''American Cinema''

Introduction.

        I’m a cinema goer. And also I like watching films on TV or video. But I think that watching a good film is the best relaxation. Now a growing number of people prefer watching films on TV to attending cinemas. There are wonderful comedies, love stories, science fiction, horror films, detective stories, and historical films on. There’s a variety of films available today. It is difficult to live without cinema. One fact is clear for everyone: cinema makes our life better. Cinema helps us to forget different problems. When people watch films, they have a rest. Some films take people into another world. I think it is a pure world, where usual problems do not even exist. Cinema is a great power; it helps us to understand our complex well. Cinema can leave nobody indifferent. It is a necessary and important part of our life. It is our essence, our mode of life and our happiness. Cinema helps us to cope with difficulties and with incorrigible problems. So that’s why I have chosen the topic ‘Cinema’.

American Cinema

When we think about American cinema we think about Hollywood, of cause, about famous actress, actors and directors.

For over 50 years, American films have continued to grow in popularity throughout the world. Television has only increased this popularity.

The great blockbusters of film entertainment that stretch from "Gone with the Wind" to "Star Wars" receive the most attention. A look at the prizes awarded at the leading international film festivals will also demonstrate that as an art form, the American film continues to enjoy-considerable prestige. Even when the theme is serious or, as they say, "meaningful", American films remain "popular". In the past decade, films which treated the danger of nuclear power and weapons, alcoholism, divorce, inner-city blight, .the effects of slavery, the plight of Native Americans, poverty and immigration have all received awards and international recognition. And, at the same time, they have done well at the box-office.

Movies (films), including those on video-cassettes, remain the most popular art form in the USA. A book with 20,000 readers is considered to be a best-seller. A hit play may be seen by a few thousand theatergoers. By contrast, about a billion movie tickets are sold at movie houses across the USA every year.

There are three main varieties of movie cinemas in the USA: 1) the "first-run" movie houses, which show new films; 2) "art theaters", which specialize in showing foreign films and revivals; 3) "neighborhood theaters", which show films several weeks or month after the “first-run” theaters.

New York is a movie theater capital of the country. Many famous and large theaters are situated there. Most of them offer continuous performances from around noon till midnight. New York is a large city of cinema. Foreign films, especially those of British, French, Italian and Swedish origin are often seen in New York, and several movie theaters specialize in the showing of foreign-languages films for the rather ethnic groups in the city.

The earliest history of film and

the earliest movie theatres.

       The illusion of movement was first noted in the early 19th century. In 1824 the English physician Peter Mark Roget published an article ‘the persistence of vision with regard to moving objects’. Many inventors put his theory to the test with pictures переключающихся быстро между собой.

The first device for playing film was invented by T.Edison in 1880. He tried to combine sound with motion pictures. The cinematograph based on Edison’s kinetoscope was invented by two Frenchmen, Louis and Auguste Lumiere. This machine consisted of a portable camera and a projector. In December 1895, The Lumiere brothers organized a program of short motion pictures at a Parisian cafe.

Films were first thought of as experiment or toys. They were shown in scientific laboratories and in the drawing rooms of private home. When their commercial potential was realized they began to be screened in public to a paying audience. The first films to be shown publicly were short, filmed news items and travelogues. In United States stores were converted onto movie theatre. People would pay a nickel to see about an hour’s worth of film, so the theatre came to be known as ‘nickelodeons’. Early film audiences needed patience. There were many technical problems. Projectors were broken often and the projectionists always reassured the audience that the performance would resume shortly. Many projectors caused flickering on the screen, earning films the nickname of ‘the flicks’.

The growth of the film industry.

From the start the film industry was eager to make and show films that people would want to see. The most popular films were those that told stories- narrative fiction films. Film making began to realize that by using different camera angels, locations, lighting and special effects, film could tell a story that theatre couldn’t.

The great “Train Robbery”, made in 1903 by Edwin S. Porter, was the first American narrative fiction film. It included the basic ingredients of the Western: a hold-up, a chase, and a gunfight. It used great variety special effects. Especially everyone was surprised by a gunman shooting directly at the audience.  

 But during the World War 1, film making almost stopped in Europe, partly because a chemical used in celluloid was needed for making gunpowder. The American film industry thrived during the war because there was money for making films; In 1915 Griffith made “The Birth Of Nation” and in 1916 “Intolerance”. For Intolerance Griffith had built a set of an ancient Babylonian city, which was over a mile long.

 About the same time, some of the slapstick comedians developed unique comedy styles, and also became world-famous stars. Charlie Chaplin, the little man with the derby hat, cane, and boggy pants, became the most famous. But others such as Buster Heaton, Harold Lloyd, and Harry Langdon were famous too. They were great artists whose work is still popular today. By 1920 the cinema had became the most popular form of rest outside the home.

Hollywood, on the west coast of the United States, became the center of the film industry. Its climate, light surroundings were suited to the film industry, which shot much material out of doors. In succeeding years, many great films were made in Hollywood, beginning with the silent films, by the first sound pictures.   The stars of the films being produced in Hollywood became known throughout the world.

In 1960 Hollywood was started to releaser the films for teenagers. The fantasy “blockbusters” with computer effects were made for so-called “teenage market” These were “Star Wars” (1977) and “Raiders of the Los Ark” (1981) by Steven Spielberg.

The Oscar.

        The Oscars are awarded every year by the American Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Science. These statuettes are awarded to actors, film directors, screenwriters and so on for outstanding contributions to the film industry. The Oscar is проводится in the Kodak Theatre, was built especially for Oscar’s ceremony. The Oscars were first awarded in 1927. The first winners were chosen by five judges. Nowadays all of the members of the Academy vote. The ceremony is attended by most Hollywood stars. The oldest winner of an Oscar was 80-year- old Jessica Tandy for her performance in the film “Driving Miss Daisy” in 1990. The youngest was Shirley Temple when she was only five years old. Nobody is really sure why it is called an Oscar, although some people say that it is because when the first statuette was made, a secretary said that It reminded her of Uncle Oscar.

Hollywood.

When people think about of Hollywood, they probably think of film stars like Marilyn Monroe, Джонни Депп, Брэд Питт and others. Hollywood is the center of the international movie industry and American movies are distributed all over the world. They are made in English but often dubbed into other languages. In some countries 90 percent of the movies that people see are US production. Sometimes, a film is not very popular with Americans, but people in other countries like it. The first films were made in Hollywood in 1911. Between 1930-1945, the five largest Hollywood’s studios produced most of the movies and owned most of the movie theatres in the United States. Making films is expensive. On the average, it costs 36 million dollars to produce a movie. Some of this goes to pay the salary of well-known movie stars and large sums can be spent on special computer-effects like. To cover these costs film companies receive money for movie theatre tickets, sell CDs of the soundtrack and toys, books, or clothes associated with the movie. Hollywood is the most famous place in the USA, if not the world.

There were several reasons why film makers went to Hollywood. Firstly, there was a lot of space, secondly, California’s warm sunny weather was ideal for making films outside. Thirdly, there was a variety of locations for filming: ocean, mountains, deserts, villages, woodland and rivers.

In the 1950s and 60s Hollywood became more international. Famous stars like Marlene Dietrich from Germany and Sofia Loren from Italy came to Hollywood. Even today many international stars like Gerard Depardier and Arnold Schwarzeneger make films in Hollywood.

The Hollywood film studio produced different types. There were the silent Charlie Chaplin comedies of the 20s, gangster films, Frankenstein horror films and Greta Garbo romantic melodramas of the 30s, the musicals of the 40s and 50s, the historical epics of the 60s, the science fiction films of the 70s and the Steven Spielberg action films and violent horror films of the 80s, 90s and of cause fantasy films by peter Jackson and Mike Newell in our days. Who knows what the next century will be famous for?

American cinema is famous its Films Companies. Most of them are situated in Hollywood:

Columbia Pictures (also Columbia)-American film company, which produces films for cinema and television.

Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) — a film company based in Hollywood, which has made many famous films and animated cartoons.

Paramount- a film company in Hollywood.

20th Century-Fox — an American film company.

United Artists — a film company (studio) in Hollywood.

Universal — n film company (studio) in Hollywood.

Warner Bros (Brothers) — an American film company.

Beverly Hills.

Most visitors to Los Angeles, California want to go and see Beverly Hills. This is where you find the homes of the movie stars. But Beverly Hills isn’t Los Angeles. It’s a small city next to Los Angeles. All kinds of celebrities live in Beverly Hills. These celebrities may be movie stars, television stars, sport stars, or other people in the news. Tourists can buy special maps for the homes of the stars. These homes are very beautiful. They usually have swimming pools and tennis courts. But sometimes you cannot see very much. The homes have high walls or trees around them. Beverly Hills is also famous for Rodeo Drive. This is one of the most expensive shopping streets in the United States. Rodeo Drive started to be an elegant street in the 1960s. Many famous stores are opened on the street. People liked all the new styles and fashions they could buy. Today you can find the most expensive and unusual clothing, jewelry and furniture in the world on Rodeo Drive. Rodeo Drive is a very special street. When you want to park your car in public parking, an attendant will come and park your car for you. Beverly Hills is really a small city. Only About 35,000 people live there. But during the day more than 200,000 people come to Beverly Hills to work or to shop!

                                       The major film genres.

The major film genres developed in the United States are the following:

Comedy. Charles Spencer Chaplin became the most widely recognized comedy figure in the world.

Westerns. The Western (a film about life in the American West in the past) was the first American genre to be developed and has remained a staple of the American motion-picture art and industry. It has been estimated that one quarter of US films have been Westerns.

Musicals. The musicals of the late 1920s and the early 1930s consisted of a series of "numbers" by established stars of Broad-way, vaudeville and radio. Later manifestations of the form were the biographical musicals, often highly fictionalized, about great composers, musicians, singers, providing an opportunity to string together some of their most popular hits.

Gangster films. The gangster film is closely tied to a real facet of American life. In earlier films, the gangster had risen to the top to enjoy wealth, power, beautiful women, expensive homes and large cars, but before the end of the film he was bound to be caught by law-enforcement officers, overthrown by fellow gang members or killed. By 1971, however, "The Godfather" showed how far the genre has evolved: Marion Brando, in the title role, dies of old age. The gangster was another businessman.

War films. They have evolved into a major American genre, since wars have occupied so much of contemporary American history. The Second World War has been the subject of the greatest number of American films in this genre.

Horror films (thrillers). A third major kind of horror films deals with people who are insane or in the grip of psychological powers beyond their control. This films about monsters and supernatural forces.

Detective and spy films. These include first of all the James Bond series. Hitchcock's films of this genre feature ordinary people who accidentally become involved with spies or other evil doers.

Science fiction. ?

               Film Directors, famous Actors and Actresses.

        Chaplin, Charlie (Charles Spencer) (1889-1977) — an English actor and director who worked mainly in the United States in silent black-and-white comedy films. He created the beloved character, the Little Tramp, who wore a shabby black suit, derby hat and floppy shoes, and walked with the backs of his feet together and the toes pointing outwards. He always walked with a cane.

         Coppola, Francis Ford (1939)- a film director, best known for the films "'The Godfather" and "Apocalypse Now".

 Spielberg, Steven (1946—) — a film director who has made many very popular films, including "Jaws", "LT", "Raiders of the Lost Ark", "Star Wars", "Empire of the Sun", etc. His films are well known for being very fast moving and full of exciting action.

 Bassinger, Kim (1954—) — a film actress, known especially for playing attractive, sexy women.

Brando, Marlon (1924—) — an actor whose films include "A Streetcar Named Desire", "On the Waterfront", "The Godfather", etc.

Cruise, Tom (1962—) — an actor who has played leading film parts since the early 1980s, e.g. in "Top Gun" and "Cocktail". He is especially popular with women.

De Niro, Robert (1945—) — an actor, known especially for his part in the films "Taxi Driver" and "The Deer Hunter".

Eastwood, Clint (1930—) — a film actor and director, best known for playing parts as a gunfighter in Westerns and a modern city police officer. His characters almost always have their right on their side, and no fear.

Gable, Clark (1901-1960) - a film actor, best known for his role as Rhett Butler in "Gone with the Wind". He also appeared in many other Hollywood films, including "Mutiny on the Bounty", "The Misfits", etc.

Monroe, Marilyn (1926—1962) — a film actress whose real name was Norma Jean Baker, who starred in films during the middle of the 20th century and became the leading sex symbol of the 1950s.

Murphy, Eddie (1961—) — an actor and comedian who first became known for his work on the television program “Saturday Night Live” but now is known mostly for his films, such as “Trading Places” and “Beverly Hills Cop”

Schwarzenegger, Arnold (1947—) — an American actor, born in Austria, whose bodybuilding appearance won him the titles of Mr. Gcrriiaiiy and Mr. Universe. He is best known for his part in the film “The Terminator” in which he plays the hero.

Taylor, Elizabeth (1932—) — an American film actress, born in Britain. She began making films at the age of ten, but is perhaps at least as well known for marriages, of which there have been eight (two of them to Richard Burton).

Williams, Robin (1952—) — an actor and comedian whose films include “Good Morning, Vietnam”, “Dead Poets Society”, etc.

Walt Disney

Walt Disney was an American artist and film producer, who was famous for his animated cartoons. He was born on December 5, 1901 in Chicago.

His most famous characters are Mickey Mouse, Duck and Pluto. The first Mickey Mouse cartoon was drawn 1928. It was the first sound cartoon, which brought great success to its creator.

In the 1950’s and 1960’s, Walt Disney began developing the family-entertainment parks, Disneyland and Disney World. The first Disneyland was opened in southern California in 1955. It is situated 27 miles south of Los Angeles, at Anaheim. Of all the show-places none is as famous as Disneyland. This superb kingdom of fantasy linked to technology was created by Walt Disney. The park is divided into six themes and there is so much to see and do in each that no one would attempt to see all of them in one visit. For extended visits, there are hotels nearby. In 1971 Disney World was opened in Florida.

Walt Disney died in California at the age of 65. But his films are still shown regularly at the cinema, because of their time1esS quality and will be shown for years to come.Walter (Walt) Elias Disney has won more “Oscars” — the awards of the United States Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, instituted on May 16, 1929 and named after Oscar Pierce of Texas, USA — than any other person:20 statuettes and 12 other plagues and certificates, including posthumous awards.

Titanic.

The shooting of ‘Titanic’ in 1997 brought people flocking to the cinemas. It has become a blockbuster and brought big profits to the producers. The reasons are:on the one hand, the thrilling plot of the film, depicting the first of the greatest disasters of the 20th century, and, on the other hand, new technologies of film making, used by James Cameron, the producer. Everybody wanted to see if the film was really worth eleven ‘Oscar’ awards.

 ‘Titanic’ is the latest screen version of the tragedy happened on April 14-15, 1912 during the maiden voyage of the British luxury passenger liner. The vessel sank with a loss of about 1,500 lives: men, women, and children. Their voyage on board the dream ship ended in a nightmare. It revealed all human vices: arrogance, self-satisfaction, greed, selfishness and self-confidence. But at the same time this tragedy showed the best traits of human character: The love-story about Jack and Rose, a young poor artist and a 17-year old girl from the upper society, arouses our sympathy and admiration. ‘Titanic’ made the leading actors Leonardo Di Caprio and Kate Winslent international celebrities. The music of James Horner created a special atmosphere in the film and has become popular with the public.

The film is interesting not only from the artistic point of view, but from the technical ones as well. Both the ship and the ocean are virtual, created by computers. Besides, we can see unique pictures of ‘The Titanic’ buried in the depth of the ocean. Its wreck was found lying in two pieces on the ocean floor at the depth of about 4,000 ..metres. The pictures were taken with the help of the Russian ocean-explores and shown to the whole world.

By the way, the film was directed by James Cameron, famous for creating very expensive films with new special effects, which were the biggest box-office success. ‘Titanic’ is not an exception. Critics say the film has opened a new era in film production. I think they are right.

                                           Contents.

1. Education in our life…………………………………………..
2. Russian schools..........................................................................
3. British schools…………………………………………………
4. Higher Education in Russian………………………………….
5. Higher Education in Great Britain…………………………….

         1. Education in our life.          

 Education is very important in our life. An educated person is one who knows a lot about many things. He always tries to learn, find out, discover more about the world around him. He gets knowledge at school, from books, magazines, from TV educational programs. The pupils can get deeper knowledge in different optional courses in different subjects and school offers these opportunities. They can deepen and improve their knowledge by attending different optional courses in different subjects. The result of the educative process is the capacity for Further education. Nowadays the students of secondary schools have opportunities to continue their education by entering, gymnasiums, lyceums, colleges. But the road to learning is not easy. To be successful in studies one must work heard. To know foreign languages is absolute necessary for every educated person, for good specialists. English is a world language. It is the language of progressive science and technology, trade and cultural relations, commerce and business. It's the language of international aviation, shipping and sports. It's also the major language of diplomacy. It's a long and slow process that takes a lot of time and practice. A foreign language is not just a subject learnt in the classrooms. There are many reasons why we begin to study foreign languages. First of all it's an effective medium of international communication. Learning foreign languages opens up opportunities and careers that didn't even exits some years ago. Knowing foreign languages can help us to find a job in such fields as science and technology, foreign trade and banking, international transportation communication, teaching librarian science and others. Of course speaking and writing in a foreign language is a difficult art and it has to be learned. Needless to say that English has become very popular today. About 350 million people speak English as its first language. About the same numbers use it as a second language. It's an official language in 44 countries. It's the dominant language of medicine, electronics and space technology, of international business and advertising, of radio. It has replaced French in the world of diplomacy and German in the field of science.

                                         2. Russian schools.

All Russian children must stay at school from the age of 6 until they are 16. The right to education is stated in the Constitution of the Russian Federation. It is ensured by compulsory secondary schools, vocation schools, and higher education establishment.

Education in Russian is compulsory up to the 9th form inclusive. The stages of compulsory schooling in Russia are: primary education for 6-7 to 9-10 inclusive; secondary education including intermediate school for ages 10-11 to 12-13 inclusive, and senior school for ages 13-14 to 14-15 inclusive. If a pupil of a secondary school wishes to go on in higher education, he or she must stay at school for two more years. Primary and secondary school together comprise 11 years of study. Every school has a “core curriculum” of academic subjects, such as Russian, Literature, Mathematics, History, Biology, a foreign language and others. Lyceums and gymnasiums offer programs giving a profound knowledge in some field of study.

After finishing 9 forms of a secondary school young people can continue their education in the 10th and 11th form. They can also go to a vocational or technical school, where they study academic subjects and receive a profession. A college gives general knowledge in academic subjects and a profound knowledge in one or several subjects.

                                           3. British schools.

        All British children must stay at school from the age of 5 until they 16. Many of them stay longer and take final examinations when they are 17 or 18. Before 1965 all children of state schools had to go through special intelligence tests. There were different types of state secondary schools and at the age of 11 children went to different schools in accordance with the result of the tests.

        State schools are divided into the following types:

        Grammar schools. Children who go to grammar schools are usually those who show a preference for academic subjects, although many grammar schools now also have some technical courses.

        Technical schools. Some children go to technical schools. Most courses there are rather commercial or technical.

        Modern schools. Boys and girls who are interested in working with their hands and learning in a practical way can go to a technical school and learn some trade.

        Comprehensive schools. These schools usually combine all types of secondary education. They have Physics, Chemistry, Biology laboratories, machine workshops for metal and woodwork and also Geography, History and art departments, commercial and domestic courses.

        After leaving school many young people go to colleges of further education. Those who become students at College of Technology (called “Techs”) come from different schools at different ages between 15 and 17.

                                     4. Higher Education in Russian.

        After finishing the 11 form of a secondary school, a lyceum or a gymnasium one can go in higher education. All applicants must take competitive examinations. Higher education institutions, that is, institutes or universities, offer a 5-year programme of academic subjects for undergraduates in a variety of fields, as well as a postgraduate course. If one finishes a postgraduate course and writes a thesis, he or she receives a candidate’s degree or a doctoral degree.

        Higher education establishments are headed by Rectors. Prorectors are  in charge of academic and scientific work. An institute or a university has a number of faculties, each specializing in a field of study. Faculties have specialized councils which confer candidate and doctoral degree.

        The system of secondary and higher education in Russia is going through a transitional period. The main objectives of the reform are: to decentralize the higher education system, to develop a new financial mechanism, to give more academic freedoms to faculties and students. All secondary schools, institutes and universities until recently have been funded by the state. Now there is quite a number of private fee-paying primary and secondary schools; some universities have fee- paying departments.

        The most famous universities are MGU and SPbGU. They are famous for their academic excellence.

                             5. Higher Education in Great Britain.

        Pupils going on to higher education or professional training usually take “A” level examinations in two or three subjects. Universities accept students mainly on the basis of their “A” level results, although they may interview them as well. In 1971 the Open University was started, where these formal qualifications are not necessary. Nearly a quarter of all adult part-time students follow its degree courses on radio and television.

        There are forty-seven universities in Britain and thirty former polytechnics (now also universities), plus 350 college and institutes of higher education.

        Undergraduate courses normally take three years of full-time study, although a number of subjects take longer, including medicine, architecture and foreign languages. They lead in most cases to a Bachelor’s degree in Arts or Science. There are various postgraduate degrees, including for research in arts or sciences.

        Degrees are awarded either by the institution itself, or by the Council for National Academic Awards, particularly in vocational areas. Students of law, architecture and some other professional can take qualifications awarded by their own professional bodies instead of degrees.

        The most famous universities are Oxford and Cambridge, called “Oxbridge”. They are famous for their academic excellence.

Lyceum “Nadezhda”

Project оn English

“ENGLISH”

Done by: A.Leonova

class 11B

Teacher: L. Kochkina

Kholmsk

2016

The value of English

It is a matter of statistical fact that English is the most important world language. It is the language of modernity, of the twenty-first century - the language of the most advanced technologies, of air traffic, computing, telecommunications, the language of world politics, diplomacy and international finance.

English is spoken on every continent. It has the largest number of foreign students, and the second largest number of native speakers (after Chinese). These numbers will probably continue to increase. Globalisation, the creation of one, interdependent world, will increasingly require a common language.

A good command of English will enable you to communicate with an increasing proportion of the world’s population, and to participate successfully in the new, globalised world.

The power of world-wide broadcasting, television and film will maintain an international standard of English. English will remain intelligible world-wide; it will not disintegrate into a British language, American language, Australian language, and so on.

No other language is likely to replace English as THE world language. French is the only other major world language which could possibly claim a world-wide role. All the others are restricted to one, or at the most to two, areas - Spanish and Portuguese to Iberia and Latin America, German to Central Europe, Russian to northern Eurasia, Arabic to North Africa and the Middle East, Hindi and Urdu to the Indian subcontinent, Chinese, Japanese and Indonesian to the Far East.

All languages are valuable, and form a major part of the basic cultural heritage of mankind. A universal language, however, is increasingly required, and English happens to be the most likely candidate to fulfil this role.

The rise of English -
from one island, to the whole world

It is very likely that some 400 years ago, in the time of Shakespeare and Queen Elizabeth I, no one, absolutely no one, could have imagined that the language of a relatively small island off the Atlantic coast of the European continent would become the paramount world language.

What were the causes of this extraordinary success story? History, geography, politics and economics can provide some of the answers.

History. A series of early invasions greatly simplified the language. The conquerors could not be bothered with the niceties of the local grammar; the conquered were unable to resist the transformation and simplification of their language. The final result - an English grammar, which, on an elementary level, is quite uncomplicated.

There is no grammatical gender. Conjugations and declensions have largely disappeared. (I/we/you/they see - the word see remains unchanged. The house, to the house, in the house - the word house remains unchanged.) The most frequently used words are mainly short and simple, and often the same word can be used as a noun, as an adjective or as a verb. The pronunciation of English is no more than averagely difficult. Thus English, to begin with, is quite an easy language to learn.

The role of geography was just as important. Living on an island meant that English people were attuned to the sea, and had developed good sea-faring skills. Moreover, defending an island was relatively easy - no other European country had the sea as a protective shield. For almost a thousand years this country has been free from armed invaders. While most other countries on the continent were continually ravaged by wars, England, and later on Britain (=England united with Wales and Scotland), could concentrate on overseas expansion and colonisation.

Finally, the role of politics and economics . England, although not Britain, is the oldest state in Europe, unified centuries before France, Spain and Russia, not to mention Germany and Italy, which were created only some 130 years ago. A strong state and navy, and a united nobility and business class were major factors in achieving the Industrial Revolution and in establishing the British empire.

The Industrial Revolution marked the peak of British power. Britain was the first and only industrialised country until about the middle of the last century. No other country could compete with British economic, industrial and financial power. British capital, British exports, British naval and military technology were irresistible. All over the world political and economic elites had to accept the hegemony (=dominance) of Britain, and this, of course, led to the global expansion of English. We can quite realistically talk about a world-wide informal British empire which lasted for two or three generations, roughly from 1780 to about 1860.

After the end of the American Civil War (1865) and the unification of Germany (1871) Britain acquired strong competitors, both industrially and politically. Industrially, for example, Germany made giant strides in the new electrical and chemical technologies. Politically, the United States started to move into the Caribbean and the Pacific, on her way to becoming THE superpower of the late twentieth century.

For another hundred years or so Britain still had a formal, political empire which covered a quarter of the globe. This formal empire consisted of colonies of settlement, for example Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, and colonies of conquest, among them India and most of Africa. This era finally came to an end in 1997 with the relinquishment of the last major British colony, Hong Kong.

What is left, now that both the informal and the formal British empires are gone? Red pillar-boxes still collect the mail in some countries; cricket and golf are spreading. Football is universal, and so is the English language.

The empire of the English language is world-wide. And this is a triumph for the whole of humanity, which badly needs a universal language in an increasingly globalised world.

The problem areas of English -
an overabundance of words, and an apparently
incomprehensible system of spelling

There are few great benefits without serious drawbacks. In the case of English, coming to grips with the size and subtlety of the enormous and disparate English vocabulary is a major challenge for native speaker and foreign student alike. And the difficulties of English spelling are legendary. As far as dyslexics are concerned, probably no other language in the world provides such an endless series of stumbling-blocks.

One could almost suggest, with a semblance of plausibility, that the English language is perversely designed as an obstacle course and as an exclusion device. It takes many years to learn how to spell correctly - and the majority probably never reaches this modest target. They can, as a result, be treated as semi-literate, backward or, at worst, plain stupid.

To build up a good English vocabulary is almost as difficult. The main prerequisite appears to be a first-class education of considerable length and breadth, an education which is the preserve of a small elite. A knowledge of Greek and Latin helps - but how many people have had a significant exposure to these languages?

Without words we cannot communicate, without words we cannot even think. A restricted vocabulary means restricted participation in cultural, social, political and economic life. It means restricted life chances. A restricted vocabulary is a form of disenfranchisement.

English among the world's languages
Language families

This is a very controversial topic - there is no agreement among the experts. We postulate (=propose) seven major language families. They are listed here in a roughly East to West order, starting in the Far East.

These language families are probably unrelated to each other. Thus a knowledge of Hungarian, for example, does not help with English, neither does a knowledge of Japanese help with Indonesian.

The Indo-European languages

The Indo-European family of languages is the largest in the world. It has six main branches.

Here is a graphical representation of the first three branches. All three have been directly involved in the development of the English vocabulary.

Dutch and German are the sister languages of English, and Swedish, Danish and Norwegian are her first cousins. All the other Indo-European languages are the second cousins of English.

All Indo-European languages are related to each other, and all of them share common elements. These can be very useful when you study an Indo-European language which is new to you. And they can provide valuable guidance among the seemingly disparate components of English spelling and vocabulary.

English today.

At the beginning of the 21st century, it is beyond question that the English language has become the lingua franca, the language used for communication between people living in different countries in the world. The famous British linguist, Professor David Crystal in his book "English as a Global Language" states that English has become a global language because it has been at the right place at the right time.

Speakers of English nowadays, comprise a very large number of people accross the globe. Figures vary considerably, but it is believed that nearly one quarter of the world’s population, or between 1.2 and 1.5 billion people, are already fluent or competent in English (Crystal, 1997). The British Council estimates that about 375 million people speak English as a first language, another 375 million speak it regularly as a second language, and about 750 million more people speak English as a foreign language. English currently is the language most often taught as a second language around the world.

Of those nations where English is spoken as a second language, India has the most such speakers ('Indian English') and it has been claimed that, combining native and non-native speakers, now India is the country with the largest English-speaking population in the world. Ten years ago that record was held by the US. (Subcontinent Raises Its Voice, Crystal, David; Guardian Weekly: Friday November 19, 2004.)

Today, English is considered the universal language for business, international communications, entertainment, tourism, trade and technology. The majority of all resources on the internet are in English, affecting people to learn English to take full advantage of it. Above all, learning English is important for being able to exchange views and make friends with people all over the world. English has an official or special status in more than 70 countries with a total population of over two billion.

Speech

English belongs to the Teutonic or Germanic branch of the Indo-European family of the languages. It is only in the course of the last hundred years that English is become a world language In Shakespeare's time it was a provincial language of secondary importance with only 6 million native speakers Nowadays English has-become the world's most important language in politics, science. In a number of speakers (400 million) it is second only to Chinese It is the official language of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, of the United States of America, of Australia and New Zealand. English is used as one of the official languages in Canada, the Republic of South Africa and the Irish Republic It is also spoken as a second l-ge by many people in India, Pakistan. The number of second-language speakers may soon exceed the number of native speakers, if it has not done so already. The working languages of the United nations are English and French. All documents are written only in the working languages. English has become now the language of international communication. At present no other language on Earth is better suited to play the role of world language. People who speak English fall into one of three groups: those who have learnt it as their native language, those who have learnt it as a second language in a society which is mainly bilingual and those who are force to use it for a practical purpose - professional or educational. Nowadays when science and technology are progressing so fast all kind of specialists need English in their work. I am not confident with my English. I think it doesn't sound well. But I am a good English learner. I always attend my English classes and work hard.

                         Lyceum “Nadezhda”

                          Project on English

                  “Women’s health and smoking”

                                                                              Done by:

                                                                      Viktoriya Savenkova

                                                       Teacher: L. Kochkina

                                            Kholmsk

                                               2015

Contents

1. Introduction
2. Factors Influencing Tobacco Use Among Women
3. History of Advertising Strategies  
4. Health Consequence of Tobacco Use Among Women

• Diseases:

• Lung Cancer
• Other Cancers
• Cardiovascular Disease
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and Lung Function
• Menstrual Function
• Bone Density and Fracture Risk

• Other Conditions
• Health Consequences of Environmental Tobacco Smoke

5. Smoking and Reproductive Outcomes, Cigarette Smoking Among Pregnant Women  

• Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Reproductive Outcomes
• Smoking Prevalence and Smoking Cessation during Pregnancy

6. New European anti-smoking campaign
7. Quitting Smoke and Attempts to Quit
8. Conclusion
9. The Literature List

                                    Introduction

   This report summarizes what is now known about smoking among women, including patterns and trends in smoking habits, factors associated with starting to smoke and continuing to smoke, the consequences of smoking on women’s health and interventions for ending and prevention. What the report also makes clear is how the tobacco industry has historically and contemporarily created marketing specifically targeted at women. Smoking is the leading known cause of preventable death and disease among women. In 2000, far more women died of lung cancer than of breast cancer. A number of things need to be acted on to control the epidemic of smoking and smoking-related diseases among women throughout the world.

            Factors Influencing Tobacco Use Among Women

   Cigarette smoking was rare among women in the early 20th century. Cigarette smoking became prevalent among women after it did among men, and smoking prevalence has always been lower among women than among men. However, the gender-specific difference in smoking prevalence narrowed between 1965 and 1985. Since 1985, the decline in prevalence among men and women has been comparable.

   Smoking prevalence decreased among women from 33.9% in 1965 to 22.0% in 1998. Most of this decline occurred from 1974 through 1990; prevalence declined very little from 1992 through 1998.

   The prevalence of current smoking is three times higher among women with 9-11 years of education (32.9%) than among women with 16 or more years of education (11.2%).

   Smoking prevalence is higher among women living below the poverty level (29.6%) than among those living at or above the poverty level (21.6%).

   Girls who initiate smoking are more likely than those who do not smoke to have parents or friends who smoke. They also tend to have weaker attachments to parents and family and stronger attachments to peers and friends. They perceive smoking prevalence to be higher than it actually is, are inclined to risk taking and rebelliousness, have a weaker commitment to school or religion, have less knowledge of the adverse consequences of smoking and the addictiveness of nicotine, believe that smoking can control weight and negative moods, and have a positive image of smokers.

  Women who continue to smoke and those who fail at attempts to stop smoking tend to have lower education and employment levels than do women who quit smoking. They also tend to be more addicted to cigarettes, as evidenced by the smoking of a higher number of cigarettes per day, to be cognitively less ready to stop smoking, to have less social support for stopping, and to be less confident in resisting temptations to smoke.

The level of nicotine dependence is strongly associated with the quantity of cigarettes smoked per day.

   When results are stratified by the number of cigarettes smoked per day, girls and women who smoke appear to be equally dependent on nicotine, as measured by first cigarette after waking, smoking for a calming and relaxing effect, withdrawal symptoms, or other measures of nicotine dependence.

   Of the women who smoke, more than three-fourths report one or more indicators of nicotine dependence, and nearly three-fourths report feeling dependent on cigarettes.

                      History of Advertising Strategies

   One of the most common advertisement themes in developed countries is that smoking is both a passport to and a symbol of the independence and success of the modern women.

   Tobacco industry marketing is a factor influencing susceptibility to and initiation of smoking among girls, in the United States and overseas. Myriad examples of tobacco ads and promotions targeted to women indicate that such marketing is dominated by themes of social desirability and independence. These themes are conveyed through ads featuring slim, attractive, athletic models, images very much at odds with the serious health consequences experienced by so many women who smoke.

   Women have been extensively targeted in tobacco marketing, and tobacco companies have produced brands specifically for women, both in the United States and overseas. Myriad examples of tobacco ads and promotions targeted to women indicated that such marketing is dominated by themes of both social desirability and independence, which are conveyed through ads featuring slim, attractive, athletic models. Between 1995 and 1998, expenditures for domestic cigarette advertising and promotion increased from $4.90 billion to $6.73 billion. Tobacco industry marketing, including product design, advertising, and promotional activities, is a factor influencing susceptibility to and initiation of smoking.

   The dependence of the media on revenues from tobacco advertising oriented to women, coupled with tobacco company sponsorship of women’s fashions and of artistic, athletic, political, and other events, has tended to stifle media coverage of the health consequences of smoking among women and to mute criticism of the tobacco industry by women public figures.

   Tobacco advertising geared toward women began in the 1920s. By the mid-1930s, cigarette advertisements targeting women were becoming so commonplace that one advertisement for the mentholated Spud brand had the caption "To read the advertisements these days, a fellow'd think the pretty girls do all the smoking."
   As early as the 1920s, tobacco advertising geared toward women included messages such as "Reach for a Lucky instead of a sweet" to establish an association between smoking and slimness. The positioning of Lucky Strike as an aid to weight control led to a greater than 300% increase in sales for this brand in the first year of the advertising campaign.

    Through World War II, Chesterfield advertisements regularly featured glamour photographs of a Chesterfield girl of the month, usually a fashion model or a Hollywood star such as Rita Hayworth, Rosalind Russell, or Betty Grable.
   The number of women aged 18 through 25 years who began smoking increased significantly in the mid-1920s, the same time that the tobacco industry mounted the Chesterfield and Lucky Strike campaigns directed at women. The trend was most striking among women aged 18 though 21. The number of women in this age group who began smoking tripled between 1911 and 1925 and had more than tripled again by 1939.

   In 1968, Philip Morris marketed Virginia Slims cigarettes to women with an advertising strategy showing canny insight into the importance of the emerging women's movement. The slogan "You've come a long way, Baby" later gave way to "It's a woman thing" in the mid-1990s, and more recently the "Find your voice" campaign featuring women of diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds. The underlying message of these campaigns has been that smoking is related to women's freedom, emancipation, and empowerment.

   Initiation rates among girls aged 14 though 17 years rapidly increased in parallel with the combined sales of the leading women's-niche brands (Virginia Slims, Silva Thins, and Eve) during this period.

   In 1960, about 10% of all cigarette advertisements appeared in popular women's magazines, and by 1985, cigarette advertisements increased by 34%.

   Evidence suggests a pattern of international tobacco advertising that associates smoking with success, similar to that seen in the United States. This development emphasizes the enormous potential of advertising to change social norms.
  As western-styled marketing has increased, campaigns commonly have focused on women. For example, in 1989, the brand Yves Saint Laurent introduced a new elegant package designed to appeal to women in Malaysia and other Asian countries. National tobacco monopolies and companies, such as those in Indonesia and Japan, began to copy this promotional targeting of women.

   One of the most popular media for reaching women—particularly in places where tobacco advertising is banned on television - is women's magazines. Magazines can lend an air of social acceptability or stylish image to smoking. This may be particularly important in countries where smoking rates are low among women and where tobacco companies are attempting to associate smoking with Western values.
   A study of 111 women's magazines in 17 European countries in 1996-1997 found that 55% of the magazines that responded accepted cigarette advertisements, and only 4 had a policy of voluntarily refusing it. Only 31% of the magazines had published an article of one page or more on smoking and health in the previous 12 months. Magazines that accepted tobacco advertisements seem less likely to give coverage to smoking and health issues.

   Events and activities popular among young people are often sponsored by tobacco companies. Free tickets to films and to pop and rock concerts have been given in exchange for empty cigarette packets in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Popular U.S. female stars have allowed their names to be associated with cigarettes in other countries.
 

   Many countries have banned tobacco advertising and promotion. In 1998, the European Union adopted a directive to ban most tobacco advertising and sponsorship by July 30, 2006. Other countries have banned direct advertising, and still others have instituted partial restraints. Such bans are often circumvented by tobacco companies through various promotional venues such as the creation of retail stores named after cigarette brands or corporate sponsorship of sporting and other events. Moreover, national bans on tobacco advertisements may be rendered ineffective by tobacco promotion on satellite television, by cable broadcasting, or via the Internet.

         Health Consequence of Tobacco Use Among Women

Women who stop smoking greatly reduce their risk of dying prematurely. The relative benefits of smoking ending are greater when women stop smoking at younger ages, but smoking ending is beneficial at all ages.

   Women who stop smoking greatly reduce their risk of dying prematurely, and quitting smoking is useful at all ages. Although some clinical intervention studies suggest that women may have more difficulty quitting smoking than men, national survey data show that women are quitting at rates similar to or even higher than those for men. Prevention and cessation interventions are generally of similar effectiveness for women and men and, to date, few sex differences in factors related to smoking initiation and successful quitting have been identified.

   Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke is a cause of lung cancer and coronary heart disease among women who are lifetime nonsmokers. Infants born to women exposed to environmental tobacco smoke during pregnancy have a small decrement in birth weight and a slightly increased risk of intrauterine growth retardation compared to infants of no exposed women.

A dozen diseases are waiting for women-smokers.

Lung Cancer

   Cigarette smoking is the major cause of lung cancer among women. About 90% of all lung cancer deaths among U.S. women smokers are attributable to smoking.

   In 1950, lung cancer accounted for only 3% of all cancer deaths among women; however, by 2000, it accounted for an estimated 25% of cancer deaths.

   Since 1950, lung cancer mortality rates for U.S. women have increased an estimated 600%. In 1987, lung cancer surpassed breast cancer to become the leading cause of cancer death among U.S. women. In 2000, about 27,000 more women died of lung cancer (67,600) than breast cancer (40,800).

Other Cancers

   Smoking is a major cause of cancer of the oropharynx and bladder among women. Evidence is also strong that women who smoke have increased risk for cancer of the pancreas and kidney. For cancer of the larynx and esophagus, evidence that smoking increases the risk among women is more limited but consistent with large increases in risk.            

   Women who smoke may have a higher risk for liver cancer and colorectal cancer than women who do not smoke.

   Smoking is consistently associated with an increased risk for cervical cancer. The extent to which this association is independent of human papillomavirus (tumor caused by virus) infection is uncertain.

   Several studies suggest that exposure to environmental tobacco smoke is associated with an increased risk for breast cancer; however, this association remains uncertain.

More research is needed.

Cardiovascular Disease

   Smoking is a major cause of coronary heart disease among women. Risk increases with the number of cigarettes smoked and the duration of smoking.
  Women who smoke have an increase risk for ischemic stroke (blood clot in one of the arteries supplying the brain) and subarachnoid hemorrhage (bleeding in the area surrounding the brain).

   Women who smoke have an increased risk for peripheral vascular atherosclerosis.
   Smoking cessation reduces the excess risk of coronary heart disease, no matter at what age women stop smoking. The risk is substantially reduced within 1 or 2 years after they stop smoking.

   The increased risk for stroke associated with smoking begins to reverse after women stop smoking. About 10 to 15 years after stopping, the risk for stroke approaches that of a women who never smoked.
 

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and Lung Function

   Cigarette smoking is the primary cause of COPD in women, and the risk increases with the amount and duration of cigarette use.
  Mortality rates for COPD have increased among women for the past 20 to 30 years. About, 90% of mortality from COPD among U.S. women is attributed to smoking.

   Exposure to maternal smoking is associated with reduced lung function among infants, and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke during childhood and adolescence may be associated with impaired lung function among girls.

   Smoking by girls can reduce their rate of lung growth and the level of maximum lung function. Women who smoke may experience a premature decline of lung function.
 

Menstrual Function

   Some studies suggest that cigarette smoking may alter menstrual function by increasing the risks for painful menstruation, secondary amenorrhea (abnormal absence of menstrual), and menstrual irregularity

Women smokers have natural menopause at a younger age than do nonsmokers, and they may experience more severe menopausal symptoms.

Reproductive Outcomes

   Women who smoke have increased risk for conception delay and for both primary and secondary infertility.

   Women who smoke during pregnancy risk pregnancy complications, premature birth, low-birth-weight infants, stillbirth, and infant mortality.

   Women who smoke may have a modest increase in risks for ectopic pregnancy (fallopian tube or peritoneal cavity pregnancy) and spontaneous abortion.

   Studies show a link between smoking and the risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) among the offspring of women who smoke during pregnancy.
 

Bone Density and Fracture Risk

   Postmenopausal women who smoke have lower bone density than women who never smoked.

   Women who smoke have an increased risk for hip fracture than women who never smoked.

Other Conditions

   Women who smoke may have a modestly elevated risk for rheumatoid arthritis.
   Women smokers have an increased risk for cataract, and may have an increased risk for age-related macular degeneration.

   The prevalence of smoking generally is higher for women with anxiety disorders, bulimia, depression, attention deficit disorder, and alcoholism; it is particularly high among patients with diagnosed schizophrenia. The connection between smoking and these disorders requires additional research.
 

Health Consequences of Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS)

   Exposure to ETS is a cause of lung cancer among women nonsmokers.
  Studies support a causal relationship between exposure to ETS and coronary heart disease mortality among women nonsmokers.
  Infants born to women who are exposed to ETS during pregnancy may have a small decrement in birth weight and a slightly increased risk for intrauterine growth retardation.

Smoking and Reproductive Outcomes, Cigarette Smoking Among         Pregnant Women

   Women smokers, like men smokers, are at increased risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and pulmonary disease, but women smokers also experience unique risks related to menstrual and reproductive function.

   Women who smoke have increased risk beginning delay and for major and secondary infertility.

   Smoking during pregnancy remains a major public health problem despite increased knowledge of the adverse health effects of smoking during pregnancy. Although the occurrence of smoking during pregnancy has declined steadily in recent years, substantial numbers of pregnant women continue to smoke, and only about one-third of women who stop smoking during pregnancy are still abstinent one year after the delivery.

   Women who smoke may have a modest increase in risks for ectopic pregnancy and spontaneous. abortion.

   Smoking during pregnancy is associated with increased risk for premature break of membranes, abruptio placentae (placenta separation from the uterus), and placenta previal (abnormal location of the placenta, which can cause massive hemorrhaging during delivery; smoking is also associated with a modest increase in risk for preterm delivery.

   Infants born to women who smoke during pregnancy have a lower average birth weight and are more likely to be small for gestational age than infants born to women who do not smoke. Low birth weight is associated with increased risk for neonatal, perinatal, and infant morbidity and mortality. The longer the mother smokes during pregnancy, the greater the effect on the infant’s birth weight.
   The risk for perinatal mortality, both stillbirths and neonatal deaths, and the risk for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) are higher for the offspring of women who smoke during pregnancy.

   Women who smoke are less likely to breast-feed their infants than are women who do not.
 

Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Reproductive Outcomes

   Infants born to women who are exposed to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) during pregnancy may have a small decrement in birth weight and a slightly increased risk for intrauterine growth retardation than infants born to women who are not exposed to ETS.

Smoking Prevalence and Smoking Cessation during Pregnancy

   Despite increased knowledge of the adverse health effects of smoking during pregnancy, estimates of women smoking during pregnancy range from 12% (based on birth certificate data) up to 22% (based on survey data). However, smoking during pregnancy appears to have decreased from 1989 through 1998.
   Eliminating maternal smoking may lead to a 10% reduction in all infant deaths and a 12% reduction in deaths from perinatal conditions.

   Women who quit smoking before or during pregnancy reduce the risk for adverse reproductive outcomes, including difficulties in becoming pregnant, infertility, premature rupture of membranes, preterm delivery, and low birth weight.
  Most relevant studies suggest that infants of women who stop smoking by the first trimester have weight and body measurements comparable with those of nonsmokers’ infants. Studies also suggest that smoking in the third trimester is particularly detrimental.
  Women are more likely to stop smoking during pregnancy, both spontaneously and with assistance, than at other times in their lives. Using pregnancy-specific programs can increase smoking cessation rates, which benefits infant health and is cost effective. However, only one-third of women who stop smoking during pregnancy are still abstinent 1 year after the delivery.

   Programs that encourage women to stop smoking before, during, and after pregnancy — and not to take up smoking ever again — deserve high priority for two reasons: during pregnancy women are highly motivated to stop smoking, and they still have many remaining years of potential life.

Despite increased knowledge of the adverse health effects of smoking during pregnancy, survey data suggest that a substantial number of pregnant women and girls smoke. Cigarette smoking during pregnancy declined from 19.5% in 1989 to 12.9% in 1998.

   Smoking prevalence during pregnancy differs by age and by race and ethnicity. In 1998, smoking prevalence during pregnancy was consistently highest among young adult women aged 18 through 24 (17.1%) and lowest among women aged 25 through 49 (10.5%).

   Smoking during pregnancy declined among women of all racial/ethnic populations. From 1989 to 1998, smoking among American Indian or Alaska Native pregnant women decreased from 23.0% to 20.2%; among pregnant white women from 21.7% to 16.2%; African American pregnant women from 17.2% to 9.6%; Hispanic pregnant women from 8.0% to 4.0%; and Asian American or Pacific Islander pregnant women from 5.7% to 3.1%.

   In 1998, there was nearly a 12-fold difference among pregnant women who smoke—ranging from 25.5 percent among mothers with 9-11 years of education to 2.2 percent among mothers with 16 or more years of education.

                New European anti-smoking campaign

   The European Commission is launching a new multi-million dollar anti-smoking campaign. It comes as the world's first ever treaty aimed at dissuading children from smoking and helping adults kick the habit enters into force this week.

   The European Commission will spend about ninety five million dollars over the next four years trying to prevent children and young adults from smoking. That's a big increase on the twenty five million dollars it spent on its last anti-smoking campaign.

   But it's an amount that's dwarfed by the multi-billion dollar financial clout of the tobacco industry, even though companies like British-American tobacco say they support efforts to reduce the incidents of youth smoking across Europe.

The Commission's latest campaign ties in with a global anti-smoking treaty which came into force on Sunday and which requires that governments take tough measures against the promotion of tobacco. The Commission's already spent money on a logo and slogan both of which will be unveiled at the launch of the anti-smoking campaign on Tuesday and which will be followed up by a series of EU wide TV and cinema adverts.

   The campaign comes on top of existing efforts to curb tobacco use. The Commission is encouraging countries to put picture warnings on cigarette packets which would feature photos of blackened lungs and from July this year tobacco firms will be banned from advertising at sporting events such as formula one car racing.

                   Quitting Smoke and Attempts to Quit

   More than three-fourths (75.2%) of women want to quit smoking completely, and nearly half (46.6%) report having tried to quit during the previous year.

   In 1998, the percentage of people who had ever smoked and who had quit was lower among women (46.2%) than among men (50.9%). This finding may be because men began to stop smoking earlier in the 20th century than did women and because these data do not take into account that men are more likely than women to switch to, or to continue to use, other tobacco products when they stop smoking.

   Since the late 1970s or early 1980s, the probability of attempting to quit smoking and succeeding has been equal among women and men.

                                        Conclusion

   Smoking  needs to be reduced not only among women, but also among young people, children and men. Anti-smoking campaigns should be held in schools and universities, in offices and factories. Reducing and absence of smoking among the youth is one of the main factors of healthy generation. People should understand the harm of this bad habit to do everything for smoke quitting, and such first step will bring health and good future.

Literature:

1. www.yandex.ru
2. A.П. Миньяр-Белоручева “English”
3. www.rambler.ru
4. T.Ю. Журина “English”

                          Lyceum “Nadezhda”

                           Project on English

                        “The Internet in our life”

                                                                                                 Done by

                                                                                         Alina Ryabova

                                                                                         Teacher:

                                                                                         L. Kochkina

                                    Kholmsk

                                          2014

                                     Contens:

1. Introduction                                                                                       3

2. The History                                                                                        3

3. The using                                                                                            4

4. The problems                                                                                     4

5. Clinics for treatment                                                                         5                                                              

6. Pro or contra                                                                                      6

7. Приложение                                                                                      7

8. Conclusion                                                                                          8

9. Literature                                                                                           9

Nowadays people live in information era, when information is the key and engine of progress. World society needs perfect means of information exchange that is why all types of telecommunication are under the permanent developing. Currently hundreds of millions people use wireless communications means.

The Internet is a huge network of computers spanning this planet.

It is a common knowledge that future is speed and power. Everybody knows that history of internet began in the United States in 1969. It was a military experiment, designed to help to survive during a nuclear war, when everything around might be polluted by radiation and it would be dangerous to get out for any living being to get some information to anywhere. Information sent over the Internet takes the shortest and safest path available from one computer to another. Because of this, any two computers on the net will be able to stay in touch with each other as long as there is a single route between them. This technology was called packet switching.

Home computers are the latest vogue today. Millions of people around the globe have personal computers nowadays. Today the Internet is a common thing. It’s on television, in magazines, newspapers, advertisement, and our mobile phones. The Internet has already entered in our ordinary life. Everybody knows that the Internet is a global computer network, which embraces hundred of millions of users all over the world and helps us to communicate with each other. Today even using your cell phone you can connect to the Internet and send e-mails, pictures and some music compositions.

Nowadays the most popular Internet service is e-mail. For some people, it is their most frequent form of communications. They can do it either they are at home or in the internet clubs or at work. Other popular services are available in the internet too. They are news, available on some dedicated news servers, telnet, game servers.

Most of the internet host computers are in the United States of America. It is clear that the accurate number of users can be counted fairly approximately, nobody knows exactly how many people use the internet today, because there are hundred of millions of users, and their number is constantly growing.

In many countries, the internet could provide businessmen with a reliable, alternative to the expensive and unreliable telecommunications systems its own system of communications. Commercial users can communicate cheaply over the internet with the rest of the world. When they send e-mail massages, they only have to pay for phone calls to their local service providers, not for international calls around the world, when you pay a good deal of money.

But saving money is only the first step and not the last one. There is a commercial use of this network and it is drastically increasing. Now you can work through the internet, gambling and play through the net.

However, there are some problems.

1) The most important problem is security. When you send e-mail, your massage can travel through many different networks and computers. The data is constantly being directed towards its destination by special computers called routers. Because of this, it is possible to get into any of the computers along the route, intercept and even change the data being sent over the internet. But there are many encoding programs available. Notwithstanding, these programs are not perfect and can easy be cracked.

2) Other very serious problems are spam, control and viruses. Scientists try to solve this problem but vainly. There efforts sink in the deep ocean of competition of defensive and offensive technologies.

Today the internet is so wide-spread service that it starts forcing out TV, newspapers and radio from our ordinary life. It is cheaper for press agencies, news agencies or advertising agency to work in the net because it is much more cheaper and easier to maintain and support an internet site than, for example, an agency and the world staff. It doesn’t mean that the internet will abolish TV, newspapers or advertisement.

Nothing of the kind. The internet has started incorporating these services and in the future they will become an incorporated part of the internet itself. Frankly saying these services have already become an incorporated part of the internet, that is why people can watch TV in the Net, read news, buy merchandise in the Internet shops.

70 percent of U.S households now use the internet as an information source when shopping locally for products and services. This puts the internet on par with newspapers as a local shopping information resource, with the internet likely to surpass the impact of newspapers in the very near future. Most of the Internet’s growth for shopping research can be attributed to large search engines such as Google, Yahoo.

 The use of IP telephony is no longer limited to geeks with computer mics who are willing to put up with an annoying delay and a bad connection to save a few bucks on a phone call.

In the USA clinics for treatment the Internet-dependence are a success,

                                                                                                     informs TF1.fr. Doctor-psychiatrist Marissa Orzak has opened clinic for treatment of computer dependence in 1996 and since then became the expert (auditeur) in the area of mutual relations of the person and a computer. Now her attention was involved with a role of the Internet in a life of people, and the clinic situated in Harvard, state of Massachusetts, has slightly changed the qualification. On the sessions the psychiatrist tries to define (determine) the reason on which the Internet so draws to itself patients. Whether there is it during depression, because of loneliness or on it any other factors influence. Then together with the patient the doctor develops the program of treatment.

 « We cannot address with them as with alcoholics, — she considers, — as in the modern world, the world of the computers, full abstention is impossible. We try to treat this illness as, for example, frustration of appetite ». Now in plans of the psychiatrist creation of group of the help to the people who have got in dependence on virtual sex.

The clinic of doctor Orzak had competitors. The doctor of Kimberley Young has created in Бредфорде, state of Pennsylvania, clinic of treatment the Internet-dependence on-line. Patients from all world can receive at it (her) consultation by phone, by e-mail or ask a question at a forum of clinic.

« Our virtual clinic allows separate people and the whole families where they were, to receive the help of professionals », — doctor Young speaks, explaining, that more than 20 percent (interests) of its (her) patients live outside the USA. Doctor Orzak, adhering more traditional views on medicine, considers (counts) the Internet-clinic for treatment the Internet-dependence as full nonsense.

« It all the same what to treat the alcoholic, appointing (nominating) it (him) of a meeting in a bar », — is indignant it (she).

Classified advertising, in the traditional print sense, is taking a beating, to put it mildly. As more people use eBay auctions to sell merchandise, online job boards to find employment, targeted search ads on Google to advertise local businesses and to bye and sell just something, newspapers and felling the pinch and unfortunately for most of the big print publishers, it’s already too late to get into the online game.

Today the internet means more than it used to mean 10 years ago and moreover will mean much more in 10-15 years.

                  Internet-dependence - “pros and corns”

People, who like internet-dependence        People, who hate Internet-dependence

   16/12/01, Johanna                                             01/02/01, SUPEREGO

 I am a journalist and write articles about         It is easy to get rid from the Internet-

 Internet-dependence, that’s why I like it-        dependence. But I prefer to sit                                                                        

I study it. But if seriously: during 6-7               and sit on the Internet because

months I have not used Internet more then       here is nothing to do(make) more!

2 days. I love the Internet-dependence be-        

cause I win it myself, for example, before         20/09/04, ANTON S.

   using the Internet, I write the list for myself.    Here I sit on work and I am engaged 

   For me to write about why I love the                features knows than … Chats, toys …

Internet-dependence is not necessary.                People, come round! It is dangerous!

There is no it in my list                                      Americans have already recognized

                                                                           Internet-dependence as serious men-                        

                                                                              tal disease!!! There are victims!!!                

11/07/03, Mihail                                                

   I think, Internet-dependence, when it seems     19/04/05, Suicidal 4 Life

   to the person, that he has got stuck in a virtu-   Yes, I am a victim. I sit and at me

   al life, but it only seems. Actually it is not so.   here the closed circle-lovechate.ru,

   Treatment from dependence consists in             hotmail.ru, yahoo.com … under-

   comprehension of that between a virtual and     stand?  I frighten myself, probably,                                                                      

real life practically there are no differences.       it is illness!!!

Internet is a place where it is easy to

  discuss the problems. The real life remains real, 08/07/06, ZanoZa

   and the person sooner or later will return.          It when you wake up since the

                                                                               morning, you include Internet,

08/05/02, X-man                                                 and then you think: « What for? »

To get rid from the Internet of dependence it

 is easy. But I prefer to sit and sit on the Internet

 because there is nothing to do (make) more!

                                    The data of statistics in 2014

                                         Literature:

1. Klement’eva T.V. 25 the most important themes in English for pupils

 10-11

2. Internet: www.topics.ru

3. Internet: www.poluchi5/tp.ru

4. Internet: www.englishforpupils.ru

Lyceum “Nadezhda”

Project on English

The Olympic Games

Done by:

Elena Khlebnikova

Teacher:

L. Kochkina

Kholmsk

2010

Contents:

1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………….3
2. Part I. The history of the beginning the Olympic Games……………………...4
3. Part II. The modern Olympic Games…………………………………………..5
4. Part III. The modern Olympic Cities…………………………………………..6
5. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..8
6. Literature………………………………………………………………………9

Introduction

Since ancient times human tried to perfect his health. And since that times sport became very popular for people that wanted to be healthy and strong, have good life and good mood.

        Nowadays sport plays very important role in many human’s life not only in health but in career. Millions of people all over the world are fond of sports and games. Sport helps people to stay in good shape, helps to support health and prevents from illness. Sport makes them more organized and better disciplined in their daily activities.

We've always paid great attention to sport in our schools, colleges and universities. Everyone can hardly find a school without a gym or a sports ground. Every city and town has a few stadiums or swimming pools where local competitions are usually held.

        Today the Olympic Games are one of the methods to show your possibilities. Many sportsmen would like to take part in the Olympic Games, because it’s a chance to become famous.

One important rule of the Olympic Games is that the competitors must be amateurs. This rule has been under a lot of pressure in recent years because modem sport is so professional and competitive. Athletes train for years to take part in the Olympics and some countries spend much more than others on equipment and facilities. But despite these pressures, the amateur rule remains.

The purpose of my report is to study the Olympic Games since ancient times.

And the problems of my report are:

1. What do the Olympic Games mean for people
2. Why do people want to do sport

Part I. The history of the beginning the Olympic Games

                                         OLYMPIA
Olympia, the site of the ancient Olympic Games, is in the western part of the Peloponnese which, according to Greek mythology, is the island of "Pelops", the founder of the Olympic Games. Imposing temples, votive buildings, elaborate shrines and ancient sporting facilities were combined in a site of unique natural and mystical beauty.

Olympia functioned as a meeting place for worship and other religious and political practices as early as the 10th century B.C. The central part of Olympia was dominated by the majestic temple of Zeus, with the temple of Hera parallel to it. The ancient stadium in Olympia could accommodate more than 40,000 spectators, while in the surrounding area there were auxiliary buildings which developed gradually up until the 4th century B.C. and were used as training sites for the athletes or to house the judges of the Games.

 The games and the religion

The Olympic Games were closely linked to the religious festivals of the cult of Zeus, but were not an integral part of a rite. Indeed, they had a secular character and aimed to show the physical qualities and evolution of the performances accomplished by young people, as well as encouraging good relations between the cities of Greece. According to specialists, the Olympic Games owed their purity and importance to religion.

                                                 Victory ceremonies                                          
The Olympic victor received his first awards immediately after the competition. Following the announcement of the winner's name by the herald, a Hellanodikis (Greek

judge) would place a palm branch in his hands, while the spectators cheered and threw

flowers to him. Red ribbons were tied on his head and hands as a mark of victory.

The official award ceremony would take place on the last day of the Games, at the elevated vestibule of the temple of Zeus. In a loud voice, the herald would announce the name of the Olympic winner, his father's name, and his homeland. Then, the Hellanodikis placed the sacred olive tree wreath, or kotinos, on the winner's head.

Part II. The modern Olympic Games

The modern Olympic era began in 1894 when Frenchman Baron Pierre de Coubertin decided to revive the ancient Greek tradition of celebrating health, youth and peace with a sports festival. Baron de Coubertin created the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the first modem Olympiad took place in Athens in 1896. Since then the Olympic Games have been held every four years with only two exceptions because of the two world wars. 

Even though the modern Olympic Games embrace the whole world, the connection with Greece is still very strong. A lighted torch is brought all the way from Greece, carried by a relay of runners, in order to light the Olympic Flame which bums all through the Games. As in ancient Greek times, the competitors still take the Olympic Oath. The long-distance race is still called the Marathon. Marathon was a village about 26 miles from Athens. In the year 490 BC the Greeks defeated a powerful Persian army at that spot. After the fierce day's fighting a soldier volunteered to bring news of the victory to the anxious citizens of Athens. He ran all the way and after gasping out the message. "Rejoice, we conquer!" he collapsed and died. 

Part III. The modern Olympic Cities

Since 1896 year there were 25 Olympic Summer Games:

        
And 20 Olympic Winter Games:

And I would like to consider 2 Olympic Games: Athens 1896, Moscow 1980.

Athens 1896

The revival of the ancient Olympics attracted athletes from 14 nations, with the largest delegations coming from Greece, Germany, France and Great Britain. On 6 April 1896, the American James Connolly won the triple jump to become the first Olympic champion in more than 1,500 years. Winners were awarded a silver medal and an olive branch. The German athlete Carl Schumann finished in the top five events of three different sports. The people of Athens greeted the Games with great enthusiasm. Their support was rewarded when a Greek shepherd, Spyridon Louis, won the most popular event, the marathon.

       MOSCOW  1980

A U.S.-led boycott reduced the number of participating nations to 80, the lowest number since 1956. Aleksandr Dityatin earned medals in every men's gymnastics event to become the only athlete ever to win eight medals in one Olympics. Super-heavyweight Teуfilo Stevenson became the first boxer to win the same division three times. Gerd Wessig became the first male high jumper to break the world record at the Olympics and swimmer Vladimir Salnikov broke the 15-minute barrier for the 1,500m. In adramatic confrontation, runners Steve Ovett and Sebastian Coe split the 800 and 1,500m.

Conclusion

Good health is a great blessing. Everyone should do all he can to stay healthy. Being in good health means having both body and mind in good working order free from disease and pain. As they say: “A sound mind in a sound body”.

All sorts of physical exercises are very helpful to make our bodies strong as well as to keep us well mentally. So if we want to keep ourselves fit, we have to go in for sports or games.

 As I said the Olympic Games play very important role for many people in all over the world.

In modern times the Olympic movement has become an enormous and expensive organisation, It's controlled by the International Olympic Committee, which consists of members from all the participating countries. The IOC is based in Lausanne, Switzerland. It chooses the locations of both summer and winter games (both take place once very four years, with winter games half a year before summer Olympiads). It also controls the rules of the competitions and selects new Olympic sports. The famous flag of the IOC shows five rings of different colours linked together. The rings represent the five continents.

As for me my favourite sport is swimming. But I don’t want to become professional in this sport. I just like to enjoy by it. Because these game needs mobility, liveliness and much energy. It keeps me in good form.  

Literature

1. http://referaty.com.ua/ukr/dll/9823
2. http://www.greenpeace.org/russia/en/press/releases/olimpic-games-at-the-cost-of-w
3. http://www.olympic.org – official website of the Olympic Movement
4. http://uaref.net/1/32_ref.html

Lyceum “Nadezhda”

 Project on English

   “Understanding art”

Done by:

Adelina Filippova        

Class 9B

Teacher:

L. Kochkina

Kholmsk

     2014

        Contents:

1. Introduction………………………………………………………………..
2. Part I: Impressionism………………………………………………………
3. Part II: Exhibitions ...………………………………………………………
4. Part III: Seurat. La Grande Jatte……………………………………………
5. Part IV: Art Galleries……………………………………………………….

• The Tate Gallery……………………………………………………..
• The National Gallery………………………………………………...
• The State Tretyakov Gallery……………………………………........

6. Conclusion………………………………………………………………….
7. Literature……………………………………………………………………

PART I: IMPRESSIONISM

What makes impressionism one of the most popular artistic styles? People nowadays are attracted by its bright colours and informal view of the world, although when impressionist art first appeared in Paris in the 1870s, it was seen as very controversial; it was even considered that it challenged the values of fine art.

Many painters of the time aspired to show their work at the Salon, an important annual art exhibition. In 1874, a small group of artists got together and organized their own show. They included informal pictures that would not have interested the organisers of the Salon. There were eight shows in all, the last one being held in 1886. During the first exhibition, an art critic used the title of a painting by Claude Monet, Impressionism, Sunrise 1872, to ridicule the show, calling it “the Impressionists Salon”. And so the group became known as “Impressionists”. What started as a critical comment became the group’s accepted name.

The Impressionists’ artistic aim was to capture the immediate visual effect of the world around them. Monet, in particular, was interested in working outdoors trying to convey the affect of light and weather on the scene he was painting. By contrast Edgar Degas worked indoors in his studio. He positioned figures in paintings to make them seem as if they had been caught at a moment in time. His figures often appear in informal poses, stretching or yawning. Degas also placed figures at the picture edge, so parts of the figures were cut off; this was to give a feeling of immediacy.

PART II: EXHIBITIONS

Treasures from a Lost Civilization

This exhibition presents the fascinating art and material culture of ancient Sichuan, in remote southwest China, uncovered by archaeology of the last 15 years. The 128 works of art on exhibit include monumental bronze images of deities, lively human figures, fantastic ritual vessels, exquisite jades, and spirited ceramic sculptures dating from the 13th century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D.

They are among the most unusual and spectacular works of art from the ancient world, and most of them are being shown for the first time in the United States. This exhibition provides rare access to a previously unknown artistic and cultural tradition as well as an opportunity to examine the early phase of Chinese civilization. Accompanied by a catalogue.

The exhibition was organized by the Seattle Art Museum in collaboration with the Bureau of Cultural Relics of the People’s Republic of China.

New Australiana

Lively, upbeat and irreverent, New Australiana, a touring show from the Australian Centre for Photography in Sydney, explores the popular culture of contemporary Australia. The exhibition was initiated as a response to the Centenary of Federation celebrations where endless images of bearded “Founding Fathers” in Victorian suits were the representative model. This collection of images promises a very different, largely humorous, decidedly non-politically correct, view of Australia. It throws the stereotypes into the ring and sheds light on some “other” visions of “Australiana”.

Titles of the work give the game away starting with Gia Mitchell’s Mutton Dressed as Lamb: The Journey of the Pineapple Princess; Lee-Anne Richards Serious Yahoos; Doug Spowart’s Surf to live – work to surf; and Anne Zahalka’s Leisureland.

Drawing on work by documentary photographers from Australia’s metropolitan and regional centres across the country, the exhibition brings us up to date, reflecting shifting mores, the enrichment of multi-culturalism and the sheer energy we Australians put into having a good time.

Baroque Painting in Genoa

In the 17th century, Genoa enjoyed a great flourishing of the arts. It attracted influential and Famous artists from all over Europe and produced a group of superb local painters. Genoa was one of the richest and most cosmopolitan cities of northern Italy, the centre of an extensive trading and banking network. Enormous wealth was invested in the creation of impressive town palaces with spectacularly decorated interiors.

This is the first exhibition to be held in Britain of Genoese painting. Highlights include Ruben’s Equestrian Portrait of Giovan Carlo Doria, an impressive image of one of Genoa’s most significant artistic patrons; Castiglione’s Adoration of the Shepherds altarpiece from the church of San Luca, and Castello’s dynamic Rape of Proserpine. There are also works by Van Dyck, who spent several years in Genoa in the 1620s before settling in England, Orazio Gentileschi, and the Franciscan painter, Bernardo Stozzi, as well as a magnificent carved picture frame by the virtuoso sculptor, Filippo Parodi. The Baroque Painting in Genoa’ catalogue accompanying the exhibition is generously on sale in National Gallery Shops at £7,95.

The magic of light

We cannot touch or hold it, but we can see it, and with it, see our world. Light defines our physical, visual and mental experiences. It determines how we move and stirs our emotions. The exhibition at the Hudson River Museum, The Magic of Light examines light art as physical sensation.

Magic presents work by 14 artists who changed the nature of art by using light – rather than paint or stone – to create. They use, for instance, fluorescent tubes to illuminate existing architecture and suggest new space from old, flexible strings of light bulbs that adapt to any space in which they are installed or a series of concentric red neon rings radiating intense light for this exhibition. Their artworks move away from the traditional art object and focus, instead, on the viewer’s perceptions.

The Magic of Light displays the work of both established and emerging American artists. The entire museum is the framework for this exhibition. Five new installations were created especially for The Magic of Light. They respond to the unusual spaces and varied architecture in and around the museum’s complex of galleries, courtyards and the historic Glenview Mansion. For example, the thousands of lights in Erwin Redl’s Matrix  l cover the 100-foot south wall of the Museum’s main gallery. The Magic of Light will be accompanied by a fully illustrated color catalogue with essays by noted art critic Carter Ratcliff and physicist Arthur Zajonc, published by The Hudson River Museum.

PART III: SEURAT. LA GRANDE JATTE

Seurat’s Sunday Afternoon on the Island of the Grande Jatte is one of those rare works of art that stands alone; its transcendence is instinctively recognized by everyone. What makes this transcendence so mysterious is that the theme of the work is not some profound emotion or momentous event, but the most banal of workaday scenes: Parisians enjoying an afternoon in a local park. Yet we never seem to fathom its elusive power. Stranger still, when he painted it, Seurat was a mere 25, a young man with a scientific theory to prove; this is hardly the recipe for success. His theory was optical: the conviction that painting in dots, known as pointillism or divisionism, would produce a brighter colour than painting in strokes.

Seurat spent two years painting this picture, concentrating painstakingly on the landscape of the park before focusing on the people; always their shapes, never their personalities. Individuals did not interest him, only their formal elegance.

There is no untidiness in Seurat; all is beautifully balanced. The park was quite a noisy place: a man blows his bugle, children run around, there are dogs. Yet the impression we receive is of silence, of control, of nothing disordered. I think it is this that makes La Grande Jatte so moving to us who live in such a disordered world: Seurat’s control. There is an intellectual clarity here that sets him free to paint this small park with an astonishing poetry. Even if the people in the park are pairs or groups, they still seem alone in their concision of form – alone but not lonely. No figure encroaches on another’s space: all coexist in peace.

This is a world both real and unreal – a sacred world. We are often harried by life’s pressures and its speed, and many of us think at times: Stop the world, I want to get off!  In this painting, Seurat has “stopped the world,” and it reveals itself as beautiful, sunlit, and silent – it is Seurat’s world, from which we would never want to get off.  

PART IV: ART GALLERIES

The Tate Gallery

The idea of the Tate Gallery took shape in 1890. In that year Henry Tate’s gift of sixty-five paintings and two sculptures, almost all of them the work of  Victorian contemporaries, was offered to the nation, but a gallery had still to be built to house them. When opened seven years later, the Tate Gallery consisted of eight rooms, and was intended as a collection of contemporary British painting only; it was, moreover, a mere annex to the National Gallery, Trafalgar Square.

The Tate Gallery has become the national collection of British painting of all periods, and in addition to this the national collection of modern foreign painting, and the national collection of modern sculpture, both British and foreign.

British artists

Among the best painters represented in the Tate Galley are Hogarth, Reynolds, Gainsborough, Constable, Turner, etc.

Here are some of them:

William Hogarth (1697-1764) is one of the greatest English painters. In his pictures he reflected social life and in many of them the beauty of his painting was accompanied by satire. The “Marriage-a-la-Mode”, “The Election Entertainment” were painted to show the life very satirically.

In 1742 Hogarth painted “The Graham Children” where he brilliantly used his delicate colours to show the charm of childhood.

John Constable (1776-1837) was fond of the place where he was born and spent his childhood on the river Stour. He saw very beautiful woods, greens in nature and, being very talented, reflected nature’s colours in his sketches which he then composed into pictures. He painted the landscape without any changes and the trees or other objects were in his paintings very true to life. He is said to be the first landscape painter in England.

  William Turner (1775-1851) began his activity in art as a watercolour master. Light and atmosphere were his characteristic feature. Turner is a super colourist. In 1805 he painted “The Shipwreck”. He showed a terrible disaster at sea. Green was a colour that Turner particularly disliked.

In “Snow Storm” he reflected with the help of snow the idea of survival and even in our days it looks very prophetic. It is considered one of his most original paintings. He studies colour very seriously and is said to anticipate the art of Impressionists and abstract painters of the 20th century.

In his “Rain, Steam and Speed” (1844) he worked much on the colour interrelation.

Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788). A very lyrical painter who successfully connected man and nature. A very strong phsychologist, he painted mostly women on the background of a scenery.

He liked blue colours best of all. His portraits are optimistic and the light and shade of colour are in full harmony with the lines.

The National Gallery

Turner (1775-1851). Rain, steam and speed

This is a very rainy day, so rainy that it is difficult to see. Not only is it rainy but the wind is blowing too, blowing very strongly and howling in our ears. At the first glance very little, but suddenly we notice a steam engine. Behind it, we can see the railway carriages, as the train speeds along its journey. This is the Great Western Railway, carrying its passengers from London to the coast. The train is on a bridge and down below is the River Thames. In the distance, on the left, is another bridge which also crosses the Thames. It is very stormy weather to be out on a little boat!

It is much safer to be on the train with the windows tightly closed. Shut your eyes and you will soon be at your destination. For this is the beginning of the new age of steam, and the railway will allow you to travel through the countryside much more quickly. In the old days you would have to travel by coach, a coach pulled by horses. But now the steam-engine races across the land. Steam-engines are, after all, very noisy and very dirty.

This drawing was painted in 18th century by the English artist Turner. Turner often painted subjects showing the impact of the Industrial Revolution upon the country.

Constable (1776-1837). The Cornfield

A favorite joke of the English is their weather. England is a land where it rains all the time or so they say! In this painting, the weather seems to be very windy and the clouds are grey – perhaps it will rain soon. But the English love their countryside and if it wasn’t for the rain, it would not be so green. Here, the trees are green and the corn stands high in the field, waiting for the harvest. This is a typical view of the English rural landscape from the nineteenth century. The thirsty shepherd boy drinks from the stream, while the ass licks moisture from the leaves.

The sheepdog has noticed and will bark to attract the shepherd-boy’s attention and the farmer in the field will close the gate. All will be well, but the shepherd-boy should pay more attention to his job!

The picture was painted by the landscape artist John Constable, in 1824. Constable came from the country of Suffolk, one of the prettiest parts of England and painted its scenery many times.

Hogarth (1697-1764). Before the marriage

Hogarth is the great English satirist of the eighteenth century. On the right we see Lord Squanderfield pointing to his family tree. His family is ancient and noble, but he has wasted his fortune. He is fat and gouty and obviously eats too much. Outside, the builders have stopped work. There is no money to pay them, and without payment, they will not work. They are on strike!

Opposite him sits a wealthy merchant. Lord Squanderfield wants some of his money! The merchant has plenty of money, but his family does not have a noble and ancient name. So, a marriage is arranged between their children. Lord Squanderfield’s son will marry the merchant’s daughter, and the two families will each get what they want. Lord Squanderfield will get the money and the merchant’s daughter will have a noble title. But does the merchant’s daughter look very happy? What is the lawyer suggesting to her? Lord Squanderfield’s son does not seem to care that the two will be shackled together in an arranged marriage. Can you see the two dogs in the corner? They are shacked together with a chain just like the unhappy couple.

The State Tretyakov Gallery

The building standing opposite the southern walls of the Kremlin, beyond the Moskva River, was built at the beginning of the 20th century from a design by the famous Russian artist Viktor Vasnetsov, a connoisseur of old Moscow. It looks like an illustration to an old Russian tale.

The façade is decorated with the ancient coat of arms of Moscow. An inscription on both sides says:

“The Moscow city art gallery named after Pavel Mikhailovich and Sergey Mikhailovich Tretyakov. Founded by P. M. Tretyakov in 1856 and presented to Moscow in 1892, together with the collection which S. M. Tretyakov had bequeathed to the city.”

Pavel Tretyakov, a merchant by birth and an outstanding patron of Russian art, dedicated 40 years of his life to his main calling – the establishment of a national art museum.

From the beginning he sought to build up a collection of realistic, poetic paintings by Russian artists who loved their country.

Tretyakov purchased paintings that have become part of the golden treasury of Russian art and are regarded as milestones in its history. He supported many Russian painters and commissioned numerous paintings. He was particularly fond of Repin. Many of Repin’s paintings can be seen in the gallery, including his masterpiece, “Ivan Grozny and His Son, Ivan”.

Another giant of Russian art, Surikov, owed a great deal to Tretyakov. His painting “The Execution of the Streltsi”, “Boyarinya Morozova” and other famous canvases hold pride of place in the gallery.

Some people think that it is as beautiful and important as the Art Theatre, The St. Basil’s Cathedral and everything that is best in Moscow.

The gallery has tens of thousands of paintings, drawings, sculptures and icons. Among the icons are some world-famous masterpieces by Andrei Rublyov.

A new huge building for the gallery is on the bank of the Moskva River.