«Выявление и анализ наиболее эффективных способов запоминания английских слов»

Муниципальная общеобразовательная средняя школа №23 с углубленным изучением иностранных языков.

Секция: Филология (иностранные языки)

«Выявление и анализ наиболее эффективных способов запоминания английских слов»

                                                                                                Автор: Веселова Анна Николаевна

ученица 9 А класса

Руководитель: Валиева Гульназ Нафисовна

учитель английского языка

                                                   Нижневартовск – 2010 г.

Аннотация.

Данная исследовательская работа была выполнена с целью выявления наиболее эффективных методов запоминания английских слов. Была выдвинута и доказана  гипотеза, что если изучить возможности и виды памяти и правила запоминания слов, то можно выявить наиболее эффективные методы запоминания английских слов. В исследовании  были использованы такие методы  научного познания как анализ и синтез, индукция и дедукция, и эксперимент. В процессе осуществления исследования важную роль сыграли воображение и фантазия, опирающиеся на реальные достижения науки.

Research Plan

All languages have words. Language emerges first as words, both historically, and in terms of the way each of us learned our first and any subsequent languages. The coining of new words never stops. Nor does the acquisition of words.

The importance of new words in the process of learning a foreign language goes without saying.

Hypothesis: The acquisition of words would be more effective if we study the ability of memory, the ways the words are remembered and presented. These points would lead us to finding out the most effective ways of memorizing English words.

The aim of my research work is to find out the most effective ways of memorizing English words. To reach this aim I should solve the following tasks:

1. To study the ability of memory and its types.
2. What does it mean to “know” a word?
3. How are words remembered?
4. The most effective ways of memorizing English words.

The methods that were used in this research work are listed below:

• Theoretical review (based on the material of well known English linguists.) / Dual Coding Theory (A. Paivio)/
• Analyses and syntheses.
• Experiment. Finding out the most effective ways of memorizing words in the process of learning English.

Theoretical review (based on the material of well known English linguists.) / Dual Coding Theory (A. Paivio)/ Analyses and syntheses.

Researchers into the workings of memory customarily distinguish between the following systems: the short-term store, working memory, and long-term memory.

The short-term store (STS) is the brain's capacity to hold a limited number of items of information for periods of time up to a few seconds.

Working memory can be thought of as a kind of work bench, where information is first placed, studied and moved about before being filed away for later retrieval.

Long-term memory has an enormous capacity, and its contents are durable over time.

Here is a brief summary of some of the research findings that are relevant to the subject of word learning:

∙ Repetition:

The time-honoured way of 'memorising' new material is through repeated rehearsal of the material while it is still in working memory - i.e. letting the articulatory loop just run and run.

∙ Retrieval:

Another kind of repetition that is crucial is what is called the retrieval practice effect. This means, simply, that the act of retrieving a word from memory makes it more likely that the learner will be able to recall it again later.

• Spacing:

It is better to distribute memory work across a period of time than to mass it together in a single block.

• Pacing:

Learners have different learning styles, and process data at different rates, so ideally they should be given the opportunity to pace their own rehearsal activities.

Use:

Putting words to use, preferably in some interesting way, is the best way of ensuring they are added to long-term memory. It is the principle popularly known as Use it or lose it.

• Imaging:

Best of all were subjects who were given the task of silently visualising a mental picture to go with a new word. Other tests have shown that easily visualised words are more memorable than words that don't immediately evoke a picture. This suggests that - even for abstract words - it might help if learners associate them with some mental image.

• Motivation:

Simply wanting to learn new words is no guarantee that words will be remembered. The only difference a strong motivation makes is that the learner is likely to spend more time on rehearsal and practice, which in the end will pay off in terms of memory. But even unmotivated learners remember words if they have been set tasks that require them to make decisions about them.

• Attention/arousal:

Contrary to popular belief, you can't improve your vocabulary in your sleep, simply by listening to a tape. Some degree of conscious attention is required. A very high degree of attention (called arousal) seems to correlate with improved recall. Words that trigger a strong emotional response, for example, are more easily recalled than ones that don't. This may account for the fact that many learners seem to have a knack of remembering swear words, even if they've heard them only a couple of times.

Experiment.

In this experiment, three different groups of subjects were used.

The first group were given a list of thirty words and told that they would be tested on their ability to recall the words.

The second group were given the same list of words and told to rate each word according to its pleasantness or unpleasantness; they were not told that they would be tested on their ability to recall the words.

The third group were given the list and asked to decide whether the items on the list would be important or unimportant if they were stranded on a desert island. They too were not told that they would be tested on these items.

The results of the tests showed a similar degree of recall between groups one and two, while group three recorded the highest degree of recall. This experiment illustrates several important points:

1 That the intention to learn does not in itself ensure that effective learning will take place.

2 That subjects are more likely to retain verbal input (i.e. commit new items to long term memory) if they are actively engaged in a meaningful task that involves some kind of semantic processing, and provides a unifying theme to facilitate organisation in the memory.

There are many ways of doing this. Here are some ideas:

• Ask learners to answer a question they choose  using the new word, preferably applying it to themselves or someone they know

• Ask learners to make an association network centred on the new word.
• Word clap: Students stand or sit in a circle, and, following the teacher's lead, maintain a four-beat rhythm,

clapping their hands on their thighs three times (one-two-three ...) and then both hands

together (four!). The game should start slowly, but the pace of the clapping can gradually

increase. The idea is to take turns, clockwise, to shout out a different word from a pre-selected

lexical set (for example, fruit and vegetables) on every fourth beat. Players who either repeat

word already used, or break the rhythm - or say nothing - are 'out' and the game resumes

without them, until only one player is left. The teacher can change the lexical set by shouting

out the name of a new set at strategic points: Furniture! Nationalities! Jobs! etc.

• Broken- heart- cards. Phrasal verbs.
• Make it into a song and sing it over and over again,  it also helps if you use the beat from your favorite  song.
• Say it out loud over and over again so that it gets stuck in your head.

Bibliography:

1. Как быстро выучить много английских слов. Павел Литвинов. Москва, 2008г.
2.  «Dual Coding Theory» A. Paivio.
3. “Как запомнить иностранные слова” И.Ю. Матюгин, Е. И. Чакаберия. Москва, 1993 «Эйдос»

Contents:

1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………7
2. The ability of memory and its types…………………………………………9
3. What does it mean to “know” a word?..........................................................10
4. How are words  remembered……………………………………………….12
5. Experiments…….…………………………………………………………..14
6. Conclusion………………………………………………………………….16
7. Bibliography………………………………………………………………..18
8. Appendix …………………………………………………………………..19

INTRODUCTION

All languages have words. Language emerges first as words, both historically, and in terms of the way each of us learned our first and any subsequent languages. The coining of new words never stops. Nor does the acquisition of words. Even, in our first language we are continually learning new words, and learning new meanings for old words. 'If you spend most of your time studying grammar, your English will not improve very much. You will see most improvement if you learn more words and expressions. You can say very little with grammar, but you can say almost anything with words!' The importance of new words in the process of learning a foreign language goes without saying.

Hypothesis: The acquisition of words would be more effective if we study the ability of memory, the ways the words are remembered and presented. These points would lead us to finding out the most effective ways of memorizing English words.

The aim of my research work is to find out the most effective ways of memorizing English words. To reach this aim I should solve the following tasks:

1. To study the ability of memory and its types.
2. What does it mean to “know” a word?
3. How are words remembered?
4. To find out the most effective ways of memorizing English words.

The methods that were used in this research work are listed below:

1. Theoretical review (based on the material of well known English linguists.) / Dual Coding Theory (A. Paivio)/
2. Analyses and syntheses.
3. Experiment. Finding out the most effective ways of memorizing words in the process of learning English.

Researchers into the workings of memory customarily distinguish between the following systems: the short-term store, working memory, and long-term memory.

The short-term store (STS) is the brain's capacity to hold a limited number of items of information for periods of time up to a few seconds.

Working memory can be thought of as a kind of work bench, where information is first placed, studied and moved about before being filed away for later retrieval.

Long-term memory has an enormous capacity, and its contents are durable over time.

Here is a brief summary of some of the research findings that are relevant to the subject of word learning: Repetition, retrieval, spacing, pacing, use, imaging, motivation,

In the experiments of the research work it was proved:

• that, the intention to learn does not in itself ensure that effective learning will take place.
• that subjects are more likely to retain verbal input  if they are actively engaged in a meaningful task that involves some kind of semantic processing, and provides a unifying theme to facilitate organisation in the memory.
• students recall more pictures than words

Actually, broadening and improving one's language skills is a very broad concept, it can be done in more than one ways at the same time which is highly recommended. One can not become better only in one area e.g. chatting/speaking, one must improve skills in all dimensions of the language!
Learning language well requires being as active as possible and making the learning as fun for oneself as possible.

THE ABILITY OF MEMORY AND ITS TYPES

Researchers into the workings of memory customarily distinguish between the following systems: the short-term store, working memory, and long-term memory.

The short-term store (STS) is the brain's capacity to hold a limited number of items of information for periods of time up to a few seconds. It is the kind of memory that is involved in holding in your head a telephone number for as long as it takes to be able to dial it. Or to repeat a word that you've just heard the teacher modelling. But successful vocabulary learning clearly involves more than simply holding words in your mind for a few seconds.

Focussing on words long enough to perform operations on them is the function of working memory. Many cognitive tasks such as reasoning, learning and understanding depend on working memory. It can be thought of as a kind of work bench, where information is first placed, studied and moved about before being filed away for later retrieval. The information that is being manipulated can come from external sources via the senses, or it can be 'downloaded' from the long-term memory -or both. Material remains in working memory for about twenty seconds.

This capacity is made possible by the existence of the articulatory loop, a process of subvocal repetition, a bit like a loop of audio tape going round and round. It

enables the short-term store to be kept refreshed. Having just heard a new word, for example, we can run it by as many times as we need in order to examine it—assuming that not too many other new words are competing for space on the loop.

Long-term memory can be thought of as a kind of filing system. Unlike working memory, which has a limited capacity and no permanent content, long-term memory has an enormous capacity, and its contents are durable over time. However, the fact that learners can retain new vocabulary items the length of a lesson (i.e. beyond the few seconds' duration of the short-term store) but have forgotten them by the next lesson suggests that long-term memory is not always as long-term as we would wish. Rather, it occupies a continuum from 'the quickly forgotten' to 'the never forgotten'. The great challenge for language learners is to

transform material from the quickly forgotten to the never forgotten.

WHAT DOES IT MEAN “TO KNOW A WORD”?

Knowing a word means:

∙ having the ability to recognize it in its spoken and written forms.

∙ knowing its different meanings.

∙ knowing its part of speech [eg. a noun, a verb]

∙ being able to pronounce it properly

∙ being able to use it correctly within a sentence in an appropriate grammatical form

∙ for technical words, recognizing it in context

∙ being able to recognize different types of English e.g boot/trunk, lift/elevator

[British/American].

One way in which researchers investigate how the mental lexicon is organized is by comparing the speed at which people are able to recall items. It is generally accepted that if certain types of prompts can be answered more quickly than others, then this will reflect the lexical system. Freedman and Loftus (1971) asked testees to perform two different types of tasks: e.g.

1 Name a fruit that begins with a p.

2 Name a word beginning with p that is a fruit.

Testees were able to answer the first type of question more quickly than the second. This seems to indicate that 'fruits beginning with p' are categorized under the 'fruit' heading rather than under a 'words beginning with p' heading. Furthermore, experimenters discovered in subsequent tests that once testees had access to the “fruit” category, they were able to find other fruits more quickly. This seems to provide further evidence that semantically related items are 'stored together'. Most researchers appear to agree that items are arranged in a series of associative networks. All items are organized in one large 'master file', and that there are a variety of 'peripheral access files' which contain information about spelling, phonology, syntax and meaning. Entries in the master file are also held to be cross-referenced in terms of meaning relatedness.

Dual Coding Theory (A. Paivio)

Overview:

The dual coding theory proposed by Paivio attempts to give equal weight to verbal and nonverbal processing. Paivio (1986) states: "Human cognition is unique in that it has become specialized for dealing simultaneously with language and with nonverbal objects and events. Moreover, the language system is peculiar in that it deals directly with linguistic input and output (in the form of speech or writing) while at the same time serving a symbolic function with respect to nonverbal objects, events, and behaviors. Any representational theory must accommodate this dual functionality." The theory assumes that there are two cognitive subsystems, one specialized for the representation and processing of nonverbal objects/events (i.e., imagery), and the other specialized for dealing with language. Paivio also postulates two different types of representational units:

"imagens" for mental images and "logogens" for verbal entities which he describes as being similar to "chunks" Logogens are organized in terms of associations and hierarchies while images are organized in terms of part-whole

relationships.

∙ Give students a long list of pictures or words to remember.

∙ Later test memory with either a recall or recognition test.

∙ Students recall more pictures than words

∙ The Imaged system has superior memory

∙ Representing ideas in both systems is superior to representing ideas in only one

system.

∙ Paivio claimed that picture memory was superior because whenever we see a picture we also represent that picture verbally.

∙ However when we see a word we do not always form a mental image of the word.

HOW ARE WORDS REMEMBERED

Here is a brief summary of some of the research findings that are relevant to the subject of word learning:

∙ Repetition:

The time-honored way of 'memorizing' new material is through repeated rehearsal of the material while it is still in working memory - i.e. letting the articulator loop just run and run.

However, simply repeating an item (the basis of rote learning) seems to have little long-term effect unless some attempt is made to organize the material at the same time. But one kind of repetition that is important is repetition of encounters with a word. It has been estimated that, when reading, words stand a good chance of being remembered if they have been met at least seven times over spaced intervals.

∙ Retrieval:

Another kind of repetition that is crucial is what is called the retrieval practice effect. This means, simply, that the act of retrieving a word from memory makes it more likely that the learner will be able to recall it again later. Activities which require retrieval, such as using the new word in written sentences, 'oil the path' for future recall.

Spacing:

It is better to distribute memory work across a period of time than to mass it together in a single block. This is known as the principle of distributed practice. This applies in both the short term and the long term. When teaching students a new set of words, for example, it is best to present the first two or three items, then go back and test these, then present some more, then backtrack again, and so on. As each word becomes better learned, the testing interval can gradually be extended. The aim is to test each item at the longest interval at which it can reliably be recalled. Similarly, over a sequence of lessons, newly presented vocabulary should be reviewed in the next lesson, but the interval between successive tests

should gradually be increased.

Pacing:

Learners have different learning styles, and process data at different rates, so ideally they should be given the opportunity to pace their own rehearsal activities. This may mean the teacher allowing time during vocabulary learning for learners to do 'memory work' — such as organizing or reviewing their vocabulary — silently and individually.

Use:

Putting words to use, preferably in some interesting way, is the best way of ensuring they are added to long-term memory. It is the principle popularly known as Use it or lose it. (Answer the questions using a new word)

Imaging:

Best of all were subjects who were given the task of silently visualizing a mental picture to go with a new word. Other tests have shown that easily visualized words are more memorable than words that don't immediately evoke a picture. This suggests that - even for abstract words - it might help if learners associate them with some mental image. Interestingly, it doesn't seem to matter if the image is highly imaginative or even very vivid, so long as it is self-generated, rather than acquired 'second-hand'.

Motivation:

Simply wanting to learn new words is no guarantee that words will be remembered. The only difference a strong motivation makes is that the learner is likely to spend more time on rehearsal and practice, which in the end will pay off in terms of memory. But even unmotivated learners remember words if they have been set tasks that require them to make decisions about them.

Attention/arousal:

Contrary to popular belief, you can't improve your vocabulary in your sleep, simply by listening to a tape. Some degree of conscious attention is required. A very high degree of attention (called arousal) seems to correlate with improved recall. Words that trigger a strong emotional response, for example, are more easily recalled than ones that don't. This may account for the fact that many learners seem to have a knack of remembering swear words, even if they've heard them only a couple of times.

THE EXPERIMENT AND VOCABULARY GAMES BY ANN VESELOVA

Experiment: In this experiment, three different groups of subjects were used.

The first group were given a list of thirty words and told that they would be tested on their ability to recall the words.

The second group were given the same list of words and told to rate each word according to its pleasantness or unpleasantness; they were not told that they would be tested on their ability to recall the words.

The third group were given the list and asked to decide whether the items on the list would be important or unimportant if they were stranded on a desert island. They too were not told that they would be tested on these items.

The results of the tests showed a similar degree of recall between groups one and two, while group three recorded the highest degree of recall. This experiment illustrates several important points:

1 That the intention to learn does not in itself ensure that effective learning will take place.

2 That subjects are more likely to retain verbal input (i.e. commit new items to long term memory) if they are actively engaged in a meaningful task that involves some kind of semantic processing, and provides a unifying theme to facilitate organization in the memory.

There are many ways of doing this. Here are some effective ways of learning English words:

• Ask learners to write a true sentence using the new word, preferably applying it to themselves or someone they know
• Learners write questions for other learners, incorporating the new word. For example:

What makes you embarrassed/frightened? They exchange questions, write the answers, and then report to the rest of the class.

• Ask learners to make an association network centered on the new word.
• Word clap: Students stand or sit in a circle, and, following the teacher's lead, maintain a four-beat rhythm,

clapping their hands on their thighs three times (one-two-three ...) and then both hands

together (four!). The game should start slowly, but the pace of the clapping can gradually

increase. The idea is to take turns, clockwise, to shout out a different word from a pre-selected

lexical set (for example, fruit and vegetables) on every fourth beat. Players who either repeat

word already used, or break the rhythm - or say nothing - are 'out' and the game resumes

without them, until only one player is left. The teacher can change the lexical set by shouting

out the name of a new set at strategic points: Furniture! Nationalities! Jobs! etc.

• Broken- heart- cards. Phrasal verbs.
• Make it into a song and sing it over and over again,  it also helps if you use the beat from your favorite  song.
• Say it out loud over and over again so that it gets stuck in your head.

HOW TO TEST VOCABUARY

Why test anything The obvious answer is that, without testing, there is no reliable means of knowing how effective a teaching sequence has been

Testing provides a form of feedback, both for learners and teachers'. Moreover testing has a useful backwash effect: if learners know they are going to be tested on their vocabulary learning, they may take vocabulary learning more seriously. Testing motivates learners to review vocabulary in preparation for a test. It also provides an excuse for further, post-test, review when, for example, the teacher goes over the answers in class. In this way testing can be seen as part of the recycling of vocabulary generally. In fact, the only difference between

many recycling exercises and tests is that only the latter are scored.

Informal testing of this type is best done on a regular basis. Ideally, in fact, vocabulary covered in the previous lesson should be tested at the beginning of the next one. If not, the chances of retaining the new vocabulary are greatly reduced.

CONCLUSION

Taking everything into account given hypothesis was proved.

Hypothesis: The acquisition of words would be more effective if we study the ability of memory, the ways the words are remembered and presented. These points would lead us to finding out the most effective ways of memorizing English words.

I thoroughly studied the ability of memory, the ways the words remembered which helped me find out the most effective ways of memorizing English words. The effectiveness was proved during the experiment, which was held with my classmates.

The results of the research show similar degree of recall between groups one and two, while group three recorded the highest degree of recall. This experiment illustrates several important points:

1 That the intention to learn does not in itself ensure that effective learning will take place.

2 That subjects are more likely to retain verbal input (i.e. commit new items to long term memory) if they are actively engaged in a meaningful task that involves some kind of semantic processing, and provides a unifying theme to facilitate organisation in the memory.

Actually, broadening and improving one's language skills is a very broad concept, it can be done in more than one ways at the same time which is highly recommended. We  can not become better only in one area e.g. chatting/speaking,we must improve skills in all dimensions of the language!
Learning language well requires being as active as possible and making the learning as fun for oneself as possible. Taking lessons is always important, but equally important are these:
1) Listen/watch: Keep listening to internet radio stations like BBC, watch TV shows in English (use only subtitles, not voice dubbing!), etc.
2) Write/communicate: Try to find discussion forums from the web about things that you find interesting (music/various artists, hobbies, etc.) and start communicating there with other people using English. Start using instant messaging systems in case you find some new friends or start emailing them.
3) Buy yourself a proper dictionary, and each time when you see a strange word that you do not understand, look it up. Putting words into their context is one of the best ways to broaden one's vocabulary, the more you read and write the better.
The main point in any language learning is to make it as fun as possible for yourself. Try to find topics that interest you, read online newspapers (Times, Guardian, Independent...), listen to BBC/NBC and other radio stations online, if you find a discussion forum for e.g. your favourite hobby or your idols in music do participate there, etc
I'm sorry there is no easy way out with this, we  really must develop language skills in all these language "levels" or dimensions in order to reach better language skills!!
Last but not least: never ever use any online translators, they are nothing but utter rubbish!! English is practically everywhere in the online world these days, you just have to use your imagination to find it! Learning pace is always personal, it takes the time it takes so there is no reason to hurry it up too much. If you do, you will not learn so well.

Good luck!

Bibliography:

1. Как быстро выучить много английских слов. Павел Литвинов. Москва, 2008г.

2.  «Dual Coding Theory» A. Paivio.

3. “Как запомнить иностранные слова” И.Ю. Матюгин, Е. И. Чакаберия. Москва, 1993 «Эйдос»