ДЕПАРТАМЕНТ ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ, НАУКИ И МОЛОДЕЖНОЙ ПОЛИТИКИ ВОРОНЕЖСКОЙ ОБЛАСТИ

ГБПОУ  ВО «ОСТРОГОЖСКИЙ МНОГОПРОФИЛЬНЫЙ ТЕХНИКУМ»

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК

ДЛЯ ВЕТЕРИНАРОВ

Учебное пособие

для студентов, обучающихся по специальности:

36.02.01 Ветеринария

Мамченко В.А. Английский язык для ветеринаров: учебное пособие для студентов специальности «Ветеринария» Учебное пособие для студентов, обучающихся по специальности: 36.02.01 Ветеринария

Составлено с целью формирования и развития лексического и грамматического навыков чтения, с учетом требований Программы курса для специальности 36.02.01 «Ветеринария», предусматривающей подготовку дипломированного специалиста в соответствии с квалификационной характеристикой, установленной государственным образовательным стандартом.- Острогожск, ГБПОУ ВО «Острогожский многопрофильный техникум», 2017. – 158 с.

ВВЕДЕНИЕ

Настоящее учебное пособие предназначено для студентов среднетехнических учебных заведений, обучающихся по специальности 36.02.01 «Ветеринария». Пособие составлено с учетом требований программы и с целью формирования и развития лексического и грамматического навыков чтения и предназначено для аудиторской работы.

По своему содержанию тексты соответствуют программным учебным материалам IV курса (Ветеринария) и способствуют закреплению обязательного словарного минимума.

Задания после текстов включают лексико-грамматические упражнения, направленные на развитие навыков монологической речи, а также способствующие пониманию прочитанного материала при помощи вопросов. Тексты снабжены списком слов с переводом и транскрипцией. Контроль понимания грамматического материала осуществляется припомощи выполнения упражнений после изложения самого материала.

Тексты заимствованы из оригинальной учебной и научной литературы, изданной в Англии и США.

CONTENTS

SECTION 3. PROFESSIONAL SPHERE OF COMMUNICATION …………….…………6

THEME 3.3. THE MEDIA AND THEIR ROLE IN THE MODERN WORLD …………....6

Mass media in the uk …………………………………………………………………………6

Mass media in the usa ……………………...……………………………………………….15

СОГЛАСОВАНИЕ ВРЕМЕН В ГЛАВНОМ

И ПРИДАТОЧНОМ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯХ ………………...………………………………20

Mass media in Russia ……………………………………………………………………….24

ПРИДАТОЧНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ УСЛОВИЯ И ВРЕМЕНИ, ДЕЙСТВИЕ КОТОРЫХ ОТНЕСЕНО К БУДУЩЕМУ……………………………………..………….26

Television: for and against ………………………………………………………………….30

УСЛОВНОЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЕ  ………………………………………………………......32

My Favorite TV Programme ………………………………………………………………..36

УСЛОВНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ (CONDITIONALS SENTENCES)  ……………..……..37

THEME ENVIRONMENT…………………………………………………………….……42

People and the Nature …………………………………………………………….…………42

СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНОЕ В ФУНКЦИИ ОПРЕДЕЛЕНИЯ ДРУГОГО СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНОГО …………………………………………………………………45

The Problem of Environmental Protection ………………………...………………………48

ОБОРОТ  THERE IS/ARE  (повторение) …………………………………………………50

The international organizations for the conservation of nature ……………………………..53

ОБОРОТ  THERE IS/ARE  (повторение) …………………………..……………………..55

THEME 3.4 MY FUTURE PROFESSION IS VETERINARIAN…………….……………58

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS ….…………………………….58

The anatomy and physiology of the horse …………………….…………………………….58

The anatomy and physiology of the sheep……………………..……………………………69

The anatomy and physiology of the pig …………………………………………………….73

The anatomy and physiology of the cattle …………………………………………………..76

АРТИКЛИ (повторение) ………………………………………………..…………………79

The anatomy of domestic animals ………………………………………………….……….88

АРТИКЛИ (повторение) ………………………….……………………………………….91

The anatomy and physiology of the cat ………………………….………………………….96

The anatomy and physiology of the dog ……………………...…………………………...101

ПРЕДЛОГИ (повторение) ………………………………………………………………..104

Human and living nature ………………………………….……………………………….110

ПРЕДЛОГИ (повторение) ………………………………….…………………………….111

The difficulties of the vet profession ………………………………………………………117

ФУНКЦИИ МОДАЛЬНОГО ГЛАГОЛА USED TO ...…………………………………121

DISEASES OF ANIMALS AND BIRDS …………..……………………………………..124

Bird flu (avian influenza) .…………………………………………………………………124

Psoroptose of neat cattle …………………………………………………………………...126

Plague of dogs ……………………………………………………………………………..127

Yersiniosis ………………………………………………………………………………....130

Salmonellosis …..…………………………………………………………………………..131

МОДАЛЬНЫЕ ГЛАГОЛЫ (повторение) .………………………………………………133

DISEASES OF ANIMALS AND BIRDS (continued) ..…………………………………..138

Cryptosporidium infection ……………….………………………………………………..138

Brucellosis …...…………………………………………………………………………….139

Rabies ….…………………………………………………………………………………..140

Anthrax …….………………………………………………………………………………142

Diseases of the sheep ………………………………………………………………………145

Animal diseases that threaten man ………………………..……………………………….147

СЛОЖНЫЕ СЛОВА. СОЮЗЫ ….………………………………………………………152

REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………………….158

SECTION 3. PROFESSIONAL SPHERE OF COMMUNICATION

THEME 3.3. THE MEDIA AND THEIR ROLE IN THE MODERN WORLD

Mass media in the uk

The mass media in the UK are represented mainly by the press (newspapers and magazines), TV and radio.

1. The uk newspapers

In the UK there are no official government newspapers. The government does not exercise any official control over the newspaper industry and most of the English newspapers are very proud of their individual styles.

UK newspapers are generally grouped into three, rather historical, groups – mass market tabloids, or red-tops, middle-market tabloids, and quality broadsheets.

Quality newspapers are serious, national, daily newspapers, appealing mainly to the upper and middle classes. They are usually published in a broadsheet format*. They are “Financial Times”, “The Times”, “The Guardian”, “The Daily Telegraph”. “The Daily Telegraph” contains reports on national and international news, gives a full covering of sports and other topics. “Financial Times” is read mainly by professional and business people as it contains a comprehensive coverage of industry, commerce and public affairs. “The Guardian” gives a wide coverage of news events and reports on social issues, the arts, education, etc. “The Times” is the most famous newspaper. It represents the views of the establishment and is well-known for its correspondence column.

 “The Guardian”, which denounced the original shift to compact, is now thought to be switching to a mid-size format between tabloid and broadsheet, known as the “Berliner”. This format is also possibly to be used by “The Daily Telegraph”, though their ownership changes have caused a delay in their adoption.

The mass-market tabloids. Unlike quality newspapers popular newspapers are not so serious and their stories tend to be sensational. The two most-popular newspapers are “The Sun” and “The Daily Mirror”. Bitter rivals, the papers until recently held very differing political views – “The Sun” being Conservative (right-wing) since the early 70’s, while “The Mirror” was Labour (left-wing). Both now appear to support Labour. Historically, “The Sun” appears to support the current government.

With the mass-market tabloids, just as in other areas of life, sex sells. “The Sun” is home of the famous Page “The Mirror” for a while, but dumped in the 1980’s. “The Daily Star”, a sister paper for the Daily Express (originally launched to use spare capacity in the Express printing presses), gives its readers regular “StarBirds”**** throughout its pages and the advertising catch-phrase “Oooh Ahhh Daily Star” (and is, incidentally, a relative success in comparison to “The Express”).

The middle-market tabloids, “The Daily Mail” and “The Daily Express” are concerned with a very different readership – that of affluent women. Weekend supplements and carefully-placed sponsorship ensure that these titles are a cheap alternative to a magazine, while sports supplements aimed at the husband aim to broaden their readership. “The Daily Mail” has a staunch right-wing agenda, and is lampooned by some for their over alarmist headlines, particularly about political asylum seekers. However, its formula, said by former owner Lord Northcliffe to give his readers a “daily hate”, has made “The Daily Mail” one of the most popular newspapers in the UK.

The broadsheets are probably the most famous to readers overseas. “The Times”, the UK’s oldest national newspaper, is not the most popular – that accolade falls to “The Daily Telegraph”. It’s important to notice, though, that the mass-market tabloids sell up to four times as many copies as the broadsheets.

Many of these daily newspapers have their Sunday counterparts, such as “The Sunday Times”, “The Sunday Telegraph”, “The Observer” (sister paper of “the Guardian”), “Independent on Sunday”, “Sunday Express”, etc. The national Sunday titles usually have a different layout and style to their weekly sister papers, and are produced by separate journalistic and editorial staff. They are often larger in size and thicker, contain a lot of supplementary sections and are more colourful.

A relatively recent phenomenon in the newspaper industry has been the free morning papers. Free weekly papers are fairly common, supported by advertising and carrying little in the way of editorial. But now, with the launch of Associated’s “Metro” in London, Birmingham and Leeds, a sister paper called “News” in Manchester, plus Manchester’s own “Metro News” and similar titles in Tyneside, Edinburgh and Glasgow, these newspapers thrive on public transport and in busy cities. Giving editorial almost as good as the paid-for dailies, these are a threat to the established titles.

2. The uk magazines

The UK has a large magazine industry with hundreds of magazines serving almost every interest – from accountancy, agriculture and technology to sports and lifestyle.

Consumer magazines make up the bulk of the titles for sale in newsagents. They may be general titles that aim to entertain and inform (such as Loaded, Elle, Radio Times) or consumer specialist titles aimed at a specific interest or hobby (Car, Total Film, Gardeners' World). There are about 2,800 UK consumer magazines. These can also be classified by readership into women’s (Cosmopolitan, Vogue, OK!, Tatler), men’s (FHM, Loaded, Nuts), teen (Mizz Magazine, Sugar) and children’s magazines. An important type of consumer magazines is current affairs magazines, which provide analysis of current political, economical and cultural events and trends (The Spectator, The Economist, The New Statesman, The Private Eye). The Spectator was established in 1828 and claims to be the oldest continuously-published magazine in the English language.

Business magazines, which may also be called trade or B2B (business to business) magazines are for people at work. Examples include Campaign for the advertising industry, General Practitioner, one of several free weekly titles for doctors, and Press Gazette for journalists. There are about 5,100 such titles in the UK. While some business magazines are sold in newsagents or bought on subscription, the main distribution channel is controlled circulation, whereby copies are sent free to qualifying individuals and the publisher makes its money through selling advertising. For example, 96% of Computer Weekly's copies go out as controlled circulation, with 1% subscription and 3% news-stand.

Academic journals aim to encourage university-level discussion of all sorts of arcane topics. Their identifying feature is that their subject matter is controlled by an academic board. Members of the board act as referees to vet all the articles. Authors are not paid; rather, they gain academic credibility. Probably the most famous academic journal is Nature.

Television listings magazines such as What's on TV and Radio Times tend to be the best-selling UK magazines with circulations of about one million to 1.5m copies. Women's weeklies are the next big group, led by million-plus-selling Take a Break, with the likes of Chat, Now and Heat selling about 500,000 copies. The biggest monthlies are Reader's Digest, Glamour and FHM, selling 750,000 down to 300,000.

3. The uk television

Broadcasting in the United Kingdom is controlled by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA). The IBA is responsible for looking after regional independent TV companies and those they have bought from other regions.

UK broadcasting companies and TV channels

• The BBC is the world's oldest and biggest broadcaster, and is the country's first and largest public service broadcaster. The BBC is funded by public money accrued from a television licence fee gathered from all UK households with a television set; it does not carry advertising. The BBC channels in the UK are BBC 1, BBC 2 (analogue), BBC 3, BBC 4, CBBC, CBeebies, BBC News 24 and BBC Parliament (digital).

BBC One – the Corporation’s primary network, broadcasting mainstream comedy, drama, documentaries, films, sport, and children’s programmes. BBC One is also the home of the BBC’s main 30-minutes news bulletins, currently shown at 13.00, 18.00, and 22.00 on weekdays (shorter early- and late-evening bulletins are broadcast on Saturdays and Sundays). The main news bulletins are followed by local news. These are provided by production centres in Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland and a further 14 regional and sub-regional centres in England. Along with the BBC's other domestic television stations, it is funded entirely by the licence fee, and therefore shows uninterrupted programming with no commercial advertising. It is currently the most watched television channel in the United Kingdom, ahead of its traditional rival for ratings leadership, ITV1.

BBC Two – home to more specialist programming, including comedy, documentaries, dramas and minority interest programmes, as well as imported programmes from other countries, particularly the United States. An important feature of the schedule is Newsnight, a 50-minute news analysis programme shown each weeknight at 22.30. There are slight differences in the programming for England, Wales Northern Ireland and Scotland.

BBC Three – the main digital television network operated by the Corporation, home to mainly youth-oriented programming, particularly new comedy sketch shows and sitcoms.

BBC Four – niche programming for an intellectual audience, including specialist documentaries, occasional “serious” dramas, live theatre, foreign language films and television programmes and “prestige” archive television repeats.

CBBC Channel – for children aged six and above.

CBeebies – for children under six.

BBC News – a dedicated news channel.

BBC Parliament – the Corporation’s dedicated politics channel, covering both the British parliament and international politics.

• ITV (Independent Television) is the network of fifteen regional and three national commercial television franchises, originally founded in 1955 to provide competition to the BBC. ITV was the country's first commercial television provider funded by advertisements, and has been the most popular commercial channel through most of its existence. These companies earn money from advertising. There is a break for advertising about every 15-20 minutes. From the late 1990s, ITV's long-standing commitment to strong current affairs and documentary programming began to diminish with the ending of productions such as World in Action and their replacement with populist shows such as Tonight. Increasingly ITV's primetime schedules are dominated by its soap operas, such as Coronation Street and Emmerdale. Recently, Independent Television faced criticism for including a large amount of "reality TV" programmes in the schedule. In its defence, ITV does continue to show its major strengths in the fields of sports coverage and drama productions, and it continues to schedule national news in primetime. ITV plc also operates digital channels ITV1 HD, ITV2 (entertainment), ITV3 (entertainmentaimed at the over-35 audience), ITV4 (has a male-oriented line-up, including sport, cop shows and US comedies and dramas, as well as classic ITV action series), Men & Motors and the CITV Channel (Children's Independent Television).
• Launched in 1982, Channel 4 is a state-owned national broadcaster which is funded by its commercial activities (including advertising). Channel 4 is a "publisher-broadcaster", meaning that it commissions or "buys" all of its programming from companies independent of itself, it has also had a long record of success in funding the production of films. Apart from the analogue Channel 4, the corporation runs a number of digital channels: FilmFour, E4 (youth entertainment channel), More4 (aimed at middle-aged and older audience), 4Music, etc.
• Channel Five was the final analogue broadcaster to be launched, in March 1997. The channel was re-named "Five" in 2002. Like Channel 4, the channel is a general entertainment channel, with internally commissioned shows such as The Gadget Show and Fifth Gear appearing alongside numerous international programmes such as CSI: Crime Scene Investigation. The channel has historically had the lowest audience of Britain's five terrestrial television channels, with a viewing share of around 5% although it occasionally outperforms Channel 4 at peak times. The Company’s digital channels include Fiver (providing pre-school shows under the Milkshake! banner as well as drama, films, soaps, popular factual and lifestyle shows) and 5USA (offering drama, films, sport, comedy and youth programming from the USA).

• British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB) operates a digital satellite television service and numerous television channels including Sky1(entertainment channel whose listings include some very popular broadcasts—many imported from North America), Sky2 (programming mostly features sci-fi series, drama shows and documentary strands), Sky3, Sky Movies and Sky Sports, etc.
• UKTV is a digital cable and satellite television network, formed through a joint venture between BBC Worldwide, a commercial subsidiary of the BBC and Virgin Media. It is one of the United Kingdom's largest television companies. Most programmes on UKTV's channels are repeat broadcasts of BBC productions (although the entertainment channels also feature programmes made by other companies). The network’s channels are Alibi (crime and drama), Blighty (Britain and Britons), Dave (male), Eden (nature), G.O.L.D. (classic British comedy), Good Food, Really (reality, lifestyles), Home, Watch (entertainment), Yesterday (history).

The most watched digital channels are owned by the six broadcasters above. Other broadcasters who have secured a notable place on British television include Virgin Media, Viacom, Discovery Networks and Disney.

4. The uk radio

There are many hundreds of radio stations in the United Kingdom, the most prominent of which are the national stations operated by the BBC.

BBC Radio 1 broadcasts current popular music and chart hits throughout the day. Radio 1 provides alternative genres after 7:00pm including electronic dance, hip hop, rock or interviews. It is aimed primarily at the 15–29 age group. The station has recorded many live performances and studio sessions, it station also broadcasts some documentaries and interviews. Short news summaries are provided roughly hourly on the half hour during daytime hours with two 15-minute bulletins at 12:45pm and 5:45pm.

BBC Radio 2 is the UK's most listened to radio station, with a mix of music from the last thirty years. The station now has adult listeners, mainly aged 25 and above, although in recent years it has attracted more of younger listeners. Its daytime playlist features music from the 1960s to various current chart hits, album and indie music. The station's appeal is broad and deep, with accessible daytime programmes and specialist programmes of particular types or eras of music.

BBC Radio 3 is a serious classical station, broadcasting high-quality concerts and performances. At night, it transmits a wide range of jazz and world music. The station is the world’s most significant commissioner of new music,[2] and its New Generation Artists scheme promotes young musicians of all nationalities.There are regular productions of both classic plays and newly commissioned drama.

BBC Radio 4 is a current affairs and speech station, with news, debate and radio drama. Music and sport are the only fields that largely fall outside the station's remit. It broadcasts the daily radio soap The Archers, as well as flagship news programme Today. Radio 4 is the second most popular British domestic radio station, after Radio 2

BBC Radio Five Livebroadcasts live news and sports commentary with phone-in debates and studio guests. It is the principal radio station covering sport in the United Kingdom, broadcasting virtually all major sports events staged in the UK or involving British competitors.

BBC 6 Musicis one of the BBC's digital radio stations which transmits predominantly alternative rock, punk, jazz, funk, hip hop with many live sessions.

BBC 1Xtrais a digital radio station in the United Kingdom from the BBC specialising in new black music, sometimes referred to as urban music. Typical music includes largely British and North American hip hop, grime, bassline, garage, dubstep, drum and bass, UK funky, dancehall, soca, reggae, gospel music, bhangra and R&B.

BBC 7is a British digital radio station broadcasting comedy, drama, and children's programming nationally 24 hours a day. It is the principal broadcasting outlet for the BBC's archive of spoken-word entertainment, and was established primarily to enable the contents of the BBC Sound Archive to be broadcast.

The BBC also provides 40 local radio services, mainly broadcasting a mix of local news and music aimed at an older audience.

Also available nationally are three national commercial channels, namely Absolute Radio, Classic FM (the UK’s first national commercial radio station, broadcasts a wide range of programming) and talk SPORT.

There are also local commercial stations. Most local commercial stations in the United Kingdom broadcast to a city or group of towns within a radius of 20-50 miles, with a second tier of regional stations covering larger areas such as North West England.

Vocabulary

Упражнение 1. Данные фразы и слова связаны со средствами массовой информации. Отметьте какие из них могут показываться на телевидинье (TV), на радио (R), в журнале газете (M), газете (N)?

Упражнение 2.  Заполните таблицу информацией о двух типах Британских газет

Упражнение 3. Дайте краткую характеристику следующим Британским радиостанциям: BBC Radio 1, BBC Radio 2, BBC Radio 3, BBC Radio 4, BBC Radio 5, commercial radio stations

Упражнение 4. Охарактеризуйте следующие телевизионные каналы: BBC 2, ITV, Channel 4, Five

Mass media in the usa

1. Radio in the usa

National Public Radio* is the nation’s primary public radio network, but most radio stations are commercial and profit-oriented.

American radio broadcasts in two bands: FM and AM.

AMhas shifted mainly to all-news format. Talk radio usually features a host, a celebrity or an expert on some subject, and the opportunity for listeners to call in and ask questions or express opinion on the air.

The call-in format is now heard on nearly 1 000 of the 10 000 commercial radio stations in the US.

FMcame to dominate the music side of the programming. Besides the 10 000 comercial radion stations, the USA has 1 400 public radio satations. Most of these are run by universities and other public institutions for educational purposes and are financed by public funds and private donations.

A new form of radio that is gaining popularity is satellite radio. The two biggest subscriptions based radio services are Sirius Satellite Radio and XM Satellite Radio, which have recently both merged together to form Sirius XM Radio. Unlike terrestrial radio music channels are commercial free and other channels feature very minimal commercials. Satellite radio is not regulated by the FCC**.

2. Television in the usa

Television is one of the major media of the United States. In an expansive country of more than 300 million people, television programs are some of the few things that nearly all Americans can share. Ninety-nine percent of American households have at least one television and the majority of households have more than one.

2.1. Broadcast television. The three major commercial television networks in the U.S. are NBC and CBS, which date to the early days of television (in fact, they both began in the 1920s as radio networks), and ABC, which began its life as a radio network spun off from NBC in 1943.

Major-network affiliates run very similar schedules. Typically, they begin weekdays with an early-morning locally produced news show, followed by a network morning show, such as NBC’s Today, which mixes news, weather, interviews and music. Syndicated programming, especially talk shows, fill the late morning, followed often by local news at noon (Eastern Time). Soap operas dominate the early afternoon, while syndicated talk shows such as The Oprah Winfrey Show appear in the late afternoon. Local news comes on again in the early evening, followed by the national network’s news program at 6:30 or 5:30 p.m., followed by more news.

Saturday mornings usually feature network programming aimed at children (including animated cartoons), while Sunday mornings include public-affairs programs that help fulfill stations’ legal obligations to provide public-service programming. Sports and infomercials can be found on weekend afternoons, followed again by the same type of prime-time shows aired during the week.

2.2. Cable and satellite television. Until the 1970s, cable television was used only to rebroadcast over-the-air TV to areas that had trouble receiving signals. But in that decade, national networks dedicated exclusively to cable broadcasting appeared, along with cable-TV systems that provided service to major cities. Today, most American households receive cable TV, and cable networks collectively have greater viewership than broadcast networks.

Unlike broadcast networks, most cable networks air the same programming nationwide. Top cable networks include USA Network, ESPN and Versus (sports), MTV (music), Fox News (news), Sci Fi (science fiction), Disney Channel (family), Nick and Cartoon Network (Children’s), Discovery Channel and Animal Planet (documentaries), TBS (comedy), TNT (drama) and Lifetime (women’s).

2.3. Non-commercial television. Public television has a far smaller role than in most other countries. There is no state-owned broadcasting authority. Instead, the federal government subsidizes non-commercial television stations through the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. The income received from the government is insufficient to cover expenses and stations rely on corporate sponsorships and viewer contributions.

American public television stations air programming that commercial stations do not offer, such as educational, including cultural, and public affairs programming. Most public TV stations are affiliates of the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), sharing programs like Sesame Street and Masterpiece Theatre. Unlike the commercial networks, PBS does not produce its own programming; instead, individual PBS stations create programming and provide these to other affiliates. New York City’s municipally-owned broadcast service, NYCTV, creates original programming that airs in several markets. Few cities have major municipally-owned stations.

3. Newspapers in the usa

Early in the 20th century, newspaper editors realized that the best way to attract readers was to give them all sides of a story, without bias. This standard of objective reporting is today one of American journalism’s most important feature.

Another dominant feature of early 20th century journalism was the creation of chains of newspapers operating under the same ownership. Nowadays all the newspapers in the U.S., with a very few exceptions, are privately owned, either by large chains such as Gannett or McClatchy, which own dozens or even hundreds of newspapers; by small chains that own a handful of papers; or in a situation that is increasingly rare, by individuals or families.

Most general-purpose newspapers are either being printed one time a week, usually on Thursday or Friday, or are printed daily. The top five daily newspapers by circulation in 1995 were the Wall Street Journal, the USA Today, the New York Times (NYT), the Los Angeles Times, the Washington Post. Weekly newspapers tend to have much smaller circulation and are more prevalent in rural communities or small towns.

There is also a global newspaper – the International Herald Tribune, which is owned jointly by the New York Times and the Washington Post and is printed via satellite in 11 cities around the world.

4. Magazines in the usa

Thanks to the huge size of the English-speaking North American media market, the United States has a large magazine industry with hundreds of magazines serving almost every interest, as can be determined by glancing at any newsstand in any large American city. Most magazines are owned by one of the large media conglomerates or by one of their smaller regional brethren.

The U.S. has three leading weekly newsmagazines: TIME, Newsweek and U.S. News and World Report. Time and Newsweek are center-left while U.S. News and World Report tends to be center-right, although all three (in theory, at least) strive to provide objective news reporting and limit personal bias to the opinion pages. Time is well-known for naming a “Person of the Year” each year, while U.S. News publishes annual ratings of American colleges and universities.

The U.S. also has over a dozen major political magazines (the exact number is debatable, of course), serving every part of the political spectrum from left to right.

Finally, besides the hundreds of specialized magazines that serve the diverse interests and hobbies of the American people, there are also dozens of magazines published by professional organizations for their members, such as Communications of the ACM (for computer science specialists) and the ABA Journal (for lawyers).

5. Internet in the usa

The Internet has provided a means for newspapers and other media organizations to deliver news and, significantly, the means to look up old news. Some organizations only make limited amounts of their output available for free, and charge for access to the rest. Other organizations allow their archives to be freely browsed. It is possible that the latter type obtain more influence, as they are true to the spirit of freedom of information by virtue of making it free. Anyone who has followed external links only to be confronted with a pay to view banner, might attest that the reputations of organizations that charge is not enhanced by their charging policy, particularly when the same information is available from sources that don’t charge.

The Internet, by means of making available such constantly growing news archives, is, in effect, writing American history as it happens, at a level of detail never before known. While proprietary archives are slowly exposed to the public after many decades, organizations that maintain immediately-updating resources have more control over what will be remembered by the general public in the near future.

Vocabulary

Упражнение 1. Объясните значение следующих слов

Упражнение 2.  Дайте краткую характеристику PBS, CBS, NBC, ABC, CNN companies.

Упражнение 3.. Что вы знаете о Time Warner, Disney, Bertelsmann, Viacom, TCI?

СОГЛАСОВАНИЕ ВРЕМЕН В ГЛАВНОМ И ПРИДАТОЧНОМ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯХ

Характерная особенность английского языка заключается в так называемом согласовании времён: время глагола придаточного предложения зависит от времени главного предложения.

Правило согласования времён представляет особую трудность, когда сказуемое главного предложения выражено глаголом в одной из форм прошедшего времени.

В этом случае в придаточных предложениях не могут употребляться формы настоящего и будущего времени глаголов, хотя речь идёт о действиях, которые совершаются в настоящем или будут совершаться в будущем.

Если глагол в главном предложении стоит в одном из прошедших времен, то и глагол придаточного предложения должен стоять в одном из прошедших времен.

В таких случаях правило согласования времен допускает три основных варианта:

• Если действие в придаточном предложении происходит одновременно с действием в главном предложении, то нужно использовать Past Simple или Past Continuous:

They told us, “We are going to the library.” Они сказали нам : «Мы идем в библиотеку».

They told us they were going to the library. Они сказали нам, что идут в библиотеку.

• Если действие в придаточном предложении предшествует действию в главном предложении, то глагол в придаточном используется в Past Perfect или Past Perfect Continuous:

We were told, “It was raining a lot.” Нам сказали: «Было много дождей».

We were told that it had been raining a lot. Нам сказали, что было много дождей.

• Если действие в придаточном предложении следует после действия в главном, то нужно использовать одно из времен Future-in the-Past:

She said: “I will try to get the highest mark on the exam.” Она сказала: «Я постараюсь заработать на экзамене лучшую оценку».

She said she would try to get the highest mark on the exam. Она сказала, что постарается заработать на экзамене лучшую оценку.

Таблица согласования времен в английском языке

Исключения:

Время в придаточном предложении может остаться без изменения, если в нем указано точное время:

He told us, “I took part in the Moscow Olympic games in 1980.” Он сказал нам: «Я принимал участие в Московских Олимпийских играх 1980 года».

He told us he took part in the Moscow Olympic games in 1980. Он рассказал нам, что в 1980 году принимал участие в Московских Олимпийских играх.

Или если идет речь об общеизвестном факте:

Newton proved that bodies attract each other. Ньютон доказал, что тела притягивают друг друга.

Упражнение 1. Тест

1. He said he… at ”Ritz” Hotel

a. is staying

b. was staying

2. They realized that they … their way in the darkness

a. lost

b. had lost

3. He says I … clever

a. am

b. was

4. He asked me where I …

a. study

b. studied

5. I asked my friend to tell me what he … at the exhibition

a. has seen

b. had seen

6. I wanted to know what parents … me for birthday

a. have bought

b. had bought

7. He says he … come to the station to see me off

a. will

b. would

8. Mary said she … very busy

a. was

b. is

9. He realized that the police … arrest him

a. will

b. would

10. I suddenly understood why he … come the previous night

a. didn’t

b. hasn’t

c. hadn’t

11. She thought children … in the yard

a. played

b. were playing

12. I knew that he … at his English hard

a. works

b. worked

13. We are sure that his new picture … a masterpiece

a. will be

b. would be

14. I was afraid you …fall

a. will

b. would

Mass media in Russia

Newspapers and magazines play a great and very important role in the life of a modern man. Reading a newspaper you can get information about the events that have taken or are going to have place in this country and abroad. You can also read articles about historical events and public figures of the past. The pages of newspapers carry articles on our economy, industry, agriculture and social life. Practically all newspapers also give radio and TV programmes, weather forecasts.

Today Russia can be proud of the variety of newspapers circulating throughout the country. One can find newspapers of all kinds: national and local, official and private, quality and popular, newspapers for children, teenagers, for all kind of fans: sport-fans, car-fans, music fans, etc. The freedom of press has become actual and real today. Most of the newspapers have their individual styles, their peculiarities. There is no need to read all of the articles. People can look through the newspapers and read the columns they are interested in.

Russia has close to ninety officially registered television companies, 25,000 newspapers, over 1,500 radio programmes and 400 news agencies—over half of them independent, the rest entitled to full or partial government financing. 

The Mass Media Act, passed in December 1991, regulates their activities. 82 per cent of the Russian public see television as the principal information source, and prefer it to the press. Radio comes next with 24 per cent.

 The total number of subscriptions to publications exceeded 61~5 million in 1994, with newspapers accounting for 43.8 million. 78 per cent of Russians are regular readers of local periodicals whose total circulation accounts for 25.2 million copies, while that of national papers is 18.1 million copies.

 The weekly «Argumenty i fakty» (in Russian) leads the national press, with 36 per cent of the polled readership, and is the most popular among people with college and university degrees and those in managerial occupations.

«Moskovsky Komsomolets» (in Russian), a Moscow daily, is second in popularity, with a huge number of subscribers and sells like hotcakes on the newsstands. The respectable daily «Izvestia (News)» is a pronounced preference in cultural, research and business circles, 35 out of a hundred political activist pollees are also its regular readers. Of the Russian dailies «Nezavisimaya Gazeta», «Commersant Daily», «Moskovsky Komsomolets», «Rossiiskaya Gazeta» and «Pravda» are also popular among political leaders, as are the weeklies «Finansovaya Gazeta» and «Moscow News».

Opinion polls highlight the most popular TV programmes - «Wonderfield Quiz», «Topic», with its social and political charge, news programmes, and foreign serials.

The Mir (World) interstate television and radio company, established in the middle of 1992, is jointly sponsored by Russia, Armenia, Tajikistan, Moldova, Kyrgyzstan and some other Commonwealth countries.

 Mayak (Beam), a round-the-clock radio station, which broadcasts news every thirty minutes, is most popular. Private radio stations—Europe Plus, Radio 101, M Radio, Moscow Echo, Radio Nadezhda (Hope), Nostalgie and others also have huge audience. They broadcast information, the analysis of the most important events and music. The new radio station Auto-Radio telling the audience about the situation in the Moscow traffic and about everything connected with cars has rapidly gained popularity.

 ITAR-TASS and RIA-Novosti, the two national news agencies, are followed by private and joint-stock agencies: Interfax, Postfactum, and IMA-PRESS. The Russian Information Agency «Novosti» (former APN) has 50 offices in foreign states and receives information from correspondents from about 40 cities in Russia.

An illustrated «Russia» magazine and Russian press digest, «Sputnik,» are circulated in Russia and abroad.

RIA News has its own news analysis service, a television company and a radio station.

Vocabulary:

weather forecasts  - прогноз погоды

the advertisement  - реклама

circulating throughout – распространяемых

subscriptions to publications exceeded – подписок на издание превысил

managerial occupations – управленческе виды работ

pollees – опрошенные

political charge – политический заряд

established – созданный

rapidly gained – быстро завоевал

transmits up - передает

Упражнение 1. Прочитайте текст и определите какие из высказываний является  правдой (Т), а какие вымыслом (F)
1. Reading the newspaper you get information                                      
2. Nothing is published in the pages
3. People can read newspapers that interest them
4. The Law on Mass Media was adopted in December 1991
5. The newspapers are issued daily
6.The most popular radio station "Mayak"
7. The newspaper is harmful
8. Newspapers can only be abroad
9. Newspapers and magazines are available to all
10. Newspapers are not relevant

Упражнение 2. Cоставьте предложение из слов

1. Can, are, read, through, people,  newspapers,  the, look,  and,  columns, in, the, they, interested.

2. Newspapers, magazines, and, of, a, play, and, great, role, very, important, in, the, live, man, modern, a.

3. Today, freedom, the, and, has, of, red, become, press, actual.

Упражнение 3. Прочитайте текст и ответьте на вопросы

1. What information you can get reading the newspaper?

2. What is published in Newspapers?

3. How called the main newspapers in Russia?

ПРИДАТОЧНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ УСЛОВИЯ И ВРЕМЕНИ, ДЕЙСТВИЕ КОТОРЫХ ОТНЕСЕНО К БУДУЩЕМУ

В придаточных предложениях условия и времени с союзами:

if (если),

after (после),

before (перед тем, как),

when (когда),

as soon as (как только),

unless (если не),

until (до тех пор, пока не),

будущее время заменяется формой настоящего времени, но на русский язык переводится будущим, например:

As soon as I am free, I'll talk to you. — Как только я освобожусь, я поговорю с тобой.

If you help me (придаточное предл. условия), I shall do this work on time (главное предл.). — Если ты поможешь мне, я сделаю эту работу вовремя.

We shall not begin until you back from school. — Мы не начнем, пока ты не вернешься со школы.

Упражнение 1. Заполните пропуски союзами when или if.

1.          I go home tonight, I’ll have a bath.

2.          there is a good programme on TV, I’ll watch it.

3.         there’s nothing in the fridge, we’ll eat out.

4.        We’ll go skiing next winter … we have enough money.

6.          it’s a nice day tomorrow, we’ll go swimming.

7.         We’re thinking of going to Spain for our holidays. … we decide to go, I’ll let you know.

8.         I’m coming to London tomorrow. I’ll phone you … I arrive.

Упражнение 2. Составьте сложное предложение из двух простых, используя союзы, данные в скобках.

ОБРАЗЕЦ: I’ll wait here. You’ll get back. (until)  — I’ll wait here until you get back.

1.         Give me a ring. You’ll hear some news. (when)

2.         The TV programme will end. I’ll do my homework. (after)

3.         I’ll go to work. I’ll have a bath. (before)

4.         She’ll be in Paris. She’ll visit friends. (when)

5.         The lesson will end. I’ll go home. (as soon as)

6.         I won’t leave the house. The postman will call. (until)

7.         Can you feed the cats? I’ll be away, (when)

8.         I’ll tell you about the holiday. I’ll get back. (when)

9.         I’ll study English. I’ll speak it perfectly. (until)

Упражнение 3. Раскройте скобки, правильно употребив времена Future Simple и Present Simple.

ОБРАЗЕЦ. When I (see) Tom tomorrow, I (invite) him to our party.  — When I see Tom tomorrow, I’ll invite him to our party.

1. Before you (leave), don’t forget to shut the windows. I (phone) you as soon as I (arrive) in London. 3. Please don’t touch anything before the police (come). 4. Everyone (be) very surprised if he (pass) the exams. 5. When you (see) Brian again, you (not/ recognize) him. 6. We (not/start) dinner until Jack (arrive). 7. (you/ feel) lonely without me while I (be) away? 8. If I (need) any help, I (ask) you. 9. Come on! Hurry up! Ann (be) annoyed if we (be) late.

Упражнение 4. Объедините два предложения в одно по образцу. Используй союзы времени или условия по смыслу.

ОБРАЗЕЦ. You are going to leave soon. You must visit the doctor before that.  — You must visit the doctor before you leave.

1.         I’ll find somewhere to live. Then I’ll give you my address.

2.         It’s going to start raining. Let’s go out before that.

3.         I’m going to do the shopping. Then I’ll come home straight.

4.         You’ll be in London next month. You must come and see me then.

5.         I’m going to finish reading this book. Then I’ll get the dinner ready. (when)

6.         We’ll make our decision. Then we’ll let you know. (as soon as)

Упражнение 5. Вставьте вместо точек if или when.

1.          I see Tom tomorrow, I’ll invite him to our party.

2.          it rains this evening, I won’t go out.

3.         I’ll phone you … I get back.

4.         I’m feeling very tired. I think I’ll go straight to bed … I get home.

5.         I’ll be very surprised … he doesn’t get the job.

Упражнение 6. Составьте смысловые цепочки предложений по образцу, используя  if и will.

ОБРАЗЕЦ. If the earth gets warmer, the sea will get warmer. — If the sea gets warmer, the ice at the North and South Poles will melt. — If the ice …, etc.

1.         the earth gets warmer

2.         the sea gets warmer

3.         the ice at the North and South Poles melts

4.         the sea level rises

5.         there are floods in many parts of the world

Television: for and against

Television has huge impact on Society. Television has both advantages and disadvantages. It is an audio-visual electronic device of the modern age. It has filled life with a new charm that can never be dismissed summarily as harmful.

It is a machine that lets us see things that come from far away. Let us analyze if it is something that is harmful or whether it can cause damage to society.

Television, in itself, is not harmful. Television becomes harmful to the society when it is misused. The television is a domestic commodity of every house. It is a source of entertainment in hotels, restaurants, public places, railway stations, etc. It caters to the various needs of the society at large. Television has multiple channels and has a wide variety of programs.

Television shows can have different content. Some may be positively beneficial to us. Others may be shocking or harmful.

Sitting in a poor posture when watching television can harm our back and our eyes. If we become addicted to it, television can waste our time.

But, it is also through Television that we get information about the global investigations, conference of doctor, findings and remedies, etc.

It is the role of man who comes foremost. The TV has a powerful educative value. The quiz contests and intelligence programs to create consciousness of family control among the illiterate  are done though television. Many other such educative programmes are being done though the television to good effect.

The television is typically an explicit means of entertainment. In general it shut our mind out. We are habituated to watch television regularly.

Apart from news channels, the reality show also gives massive exposure to showcase the talent. Television news channels acts like the voice of the nation.

To conclude, television is a great gift to our society. It is assumed that too much of exposure to the television screen is likely to damage our eyes. But a controlled use of television is a good practice. People should also make habit of splashing the eyes with water after watching television for a while.

Vocabulary:

impact – влияние

dismissed – признан

harmful – вредный

damage – вред

misused – неправильное

entertainment – развлечение

caters – удовлетворяет

content – содержание

poor posture – неправильная осанка

addicted to – зависеть от

habituated – привыкли

assumed – предполагается

splashing – сбрызгивание

Упражнение 1. Прочитайте текст и выберите правильный ответ

1.What can television do:

1. Influences society

2.Has no advantage

3. Makes the world more fun

2.What is television?

1. Box for watching movies

2. Several channels, a wide range of programs

3. We know the world

3.What harm does television do?

1.You that, it's a useful thing

2. Vision damage

3.Development of the community

4.What can you learn after watching TV?

1. Nothing, just watching

2. Fills life with charm

3. Information about the external world

5. Than useful TV?

1. know the world, get new information

2. Television can only do harm

3. Helps in solving complex problems

Упражнение 2.  Прочитайте текст и составьте 3 предложения с данные словами

Television

Modernity

Device

Damage

The use Influence

Society

Упражнение3. Прочитайте текст и ответьте письменно на вопрос, приводя аргументы «Телевидение это вред или польза?»

УСЛОВНОЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЕ

Упражнение 1. Подберите к первой части условных предложений (из первого столбика) их окончание (из второго столбика). Обратите внимание на тип условного предложения. Переведите получившиеся предложения.

ОБРАЗЕЦ:   1 – с  (Мы бы испекли торт, если бы мы купили немного яиц вчера.)

1)         We would have made a cake                a) if he hadn’t shouted at them.

2)         If it rains much                                      b) if she loses weight.

3)         If I knew English well                           c) If we had bought some eggs yesterday

4)         My kids wouldn’t have cried                 d) if I were you.

5)         I would call him                                     e) I would be an interpreter.

6)         She will put this dress on                       f) the flowers will grow very fast.

Упражнение 2.  Переведите условные предложения всех типов.

1. Если бы у меня был отпуск сейчас, я бы поехал на озеро Байкал.
2. Я посмотрю этот фильм, если он понравится тебе.
3. Если бы ты подписал документы вчера, мы бы отослали их сегодня.
4. Если бы Джон не потерял номер телефона, он бы позвонил ей.
5. Марк был бы здоровым мужчиной, если бы не курил.

My Favorite TV Programme

Television is one of the most used words in contemporary language. However, it’s not a very old thing. It’s a way of delivering information, a mass-media tool. It’s the second place after the Internet to know news quickly and the weather, to listen to the experts’ comments on political situation, to watch interesting films, to see the wild life or some countries you will have never been to.

My favorite TV programme is Planet Earth on Discovery Channel. I think it’s by far the best source of information for those who are interested in the wondrous beauty of the planet Earth and want to know how the Earth works learning more about many facets of Earth including power and light, wind and fire, planets and stars and much more. I believe it beats all other forms of television programming.

Planet Earth is a 2006 television series produced by the BBC Natural History Unit. Five years in the making, it was the most expensive nature documentary series ever commissioned by the BBC, and also the first to be filmed in high definition. Planet Earth was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One in March 2006, and premiered one year later in the USA on the Discovery Channel. By June 2007, it had been shown in 130 countries worldwide.

The series comprises eleven episodes, each of which features a global overview of a different habitat on Earth. At the end of each fifty-minute episode, a ten-minute featurette takes a behind-the-scenes look at the challenges of filming the series.

The series got a number of awards in the UK and the USA and collected multiple prizes at wildlife film festivals around the globe.

Vocabulary

 сontemporary - современный 

delivering – доставка

commissioned – по заказу

definition – четкость

 to broadcast – вещать

overview – обзор

featurette - короткометражный фильм

Упражнение 1. Прочитайте текст и письменно дайте ответ на вопросы

1. How often do you watch TV?
2. What is your favorite TV show? Tell us about it
3. How do you think television is a step into the future? why do you think so?

Упражнение 2.Составьте предложение употребляя слова:

Commissioned

Program

To broadcast

Favorite channel

The series comprises

Упражнение 3. Подготовьте монологическое высказывание по теме «Моя любимая телевизионная программа »

УСЛОВНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ (CONDITIONALS SENTENCES)

Условное предложение – одна из разновидностей сложноподчиненных, соответственно оно состоит из главной и придаточной части, в которых выражаются следствие и условие.

Условное предложение = следствие + условие

Например:

If she forgive me (условие), I will never forget it (следствие) – Если она простит  меня, я никогда этого не забуду.

Обычно выделяют три вида условных предложений, отличающихся степенью вероятности действия, но иногда выделяют нулевой тип условных предложений.

Первый тип условных предложений (First Conditional sentences) .

Условные предложения первого типа выражают реальные, осуществимые предположения, относящиеся к будущему времени:

В условии глагол употребляется в Present Simple, в следствии – в Future Simple.

If the movie is boring, we’ll go for a walk – Если фильм будет скучным, мы пойдем домой.

Условие и следствие могут меняться местами, смысл от этого не меняется.

We’ll go for a walk, if the movie is boring – Мы пойдем домой, если фильм будет скучным.

Второй тип условных предложений (Second Conditional sentences) .

Условные предложения второго типа выражают маловероятные или невероятные предположения, относящиеся к настоящему или будущему времени.

В условии глагол употребляется в Past Simple, в следствии – would + инфинитив (без частицы to).

If our team won the lottery, we would buy new house – Если бы наша команда выиграли в лотерею, мы бы купили новый дом.

Конструкция If  I were you…

Ко второму типу условных предложений относится употребительная конструкция If I were you… (я бы на твоем месте…) В этой конструкции используется глагол to be  в сослагательном наклонении – were (форма сослагательного наклонения совпадает с формой множественного числа прошедшего времени were).

If Ann were you, she would not ask too many questions  – Я бы на твоем месте не стал задавать слишком много вопросов.

Третий тип условных предложений (Third Conditional sentences) .

Условные предложения третьего типа выражают предположения, относящиеся к прошедшему времени, и поэтому являются невыполнимыми – это те действия, которые могли бы произойти, но они не произошли.

В условии используется Past Perfect, а в следствии – would have + Past Participle.

If I had made more money, I would have bought a better dress  –  Если бы я заработал (но я не заработал) больше денег, я бы купила платье получше .

Нулевой тип условных предложений (Zero Conditional sentences) .

В этих предложениях фактически нет предположения (которое может сбыться, а может нет), но есть условие и следствие.

В предложениях этого типа говорится об условии, которое обязательно, неизбежно влечет за собой некое следствие. Наряду с союзом if (если), в предложениях этого типа часто используется союз when (когда).

И в условии, и в следствии используется глагол в форме Present Simple.

If he fall, he get hurt  –  Если он упадет, будет больно.

В предложениях этого типа может выражаться и субъективная точка зрения, а не объективный факт. В таком случае говорящий подчеркивает, что он уверен в причинно-следственной связи между двумя фактами.

When a guy gets married, he gets fat – Когда мужчина женится, он толстеет.

Упражнение 1.  Закончите предложения.

1. If it doesn’t rain soon … .
2. I’ll stay at home if … .
3. I wouldn’t have come to the theatre on time if …
4. If I left home for work earlier ...
5. If I won a prize … .
6. If I were a king … .
7. If I were rich ….
8. If I told my parents the truth ….
9. If I were you ….

Упражнение 2.  Поставьте глаголы, данные в скобках в нужную форму.

1. I shouldn’t have believed it if I (not/see) it with my own eye.
2. If you (arrive) ten minutes earlier, you would have get a seat.
3. If you had told me that beforehand, I (find) some money for you.
4. If he had asked you, you (answer)?
5. If my mother (know) about the party, she would have baked a cake.
6. If you (speak) slowly, he might have understood you.
7. If I (have) a book, I wouldn’t have been bored.
8. I (take) a taxi if I had understood that it was too late.
9. If I (be) ready when he called, he would have taken me with him.
10. She had a headache, otherwise she (come).

Упражнение 3. Составьте предложения, найдя соответствие между левой и правой колонками .

Упражнение 4.  Раскройте скобки таким образом, чтобы предложения выражали: а) реальное условие; б) нереальное условие.

1. If he (know), he (tell) you. 2. If he (want) to talk, he (ring up). 3. She (feel) lonely if Peter (go) away.  4. If she (have) enough money, she (buy) a large house. 4. She (feel) lonely if Peter (go) away. 5. We (be) pleased to see you if you (arrive). 6. If you (can) come on Sunday, you (come). 7. I (understand) Mrs Smith if she (speak) slowly. 8. I (not/go) by ship unless there (be) no other way.

Упражнение 5.  Поставьте глаголы, данные в скобках в нужную форму.

1. If you tell you a secret, I (promise) to keep it? 2. If she (know) her address, she’d write a letter to her. 3If I had a player typewriter, I (listen) to music. 4. If he worked slowly, he (not/make) so many mistakes. 5. I could tell you the truth if I (know). 6. Tom might get fat if he (not/stop) eating much. 7. I (have) a car if I could afford it. 8. What would you do if you (get) stuck between two floors? 9. If Ann (know) that it was dangerous she wouldn’t come. 10. If we (win) a big money prize, we’d give up my job

THEME 3.4. ENVIRONMENT

People and the Nature

We live on the earth. There is a lot of water on the earth. It is in rivers, lakes, seas and oceans. There are a lot of forests and fields, hills and mountains on it. The earth is full of wonders. Different animals live on the earth. Different plants grow on it. The earth is beautiful. There are large countries and small countries. There are warm countries and cold countries. There are some countries where there are four seasons in a year and some countries where there are only two. When the sun shines it is day. When the sun does not shine it is night. When it is day in one country it is night in another. You can see the moon and the stars in the sky at night. People live in different countries. They speak different languages.

People have lived on our planet for many years. People depend on their planet, on the sun, on animals and plants around them. People must take care of Earth. Our ecology becomes worse and worse with every new day. Many species of animals and birds are disappearing nowadays. People destruct wildlife, cut down trees to make furniture. They forget that people can't live without trees and plants, because they fill air with oxygen. And, of course, great problems are population and animals destruction. The main reason of pollution is rubbish. Most of our rubbish goes to big holes in the ground, called 'dumps'. But dumps are very dangerous for our life 'cause they are full of rats, which can carry infections away from dumps. Another way to get rid of rubbish is to burn it. But the fires make poisons, which go into the air and pollute it. But pollution isn't the only actual problem. Every day a big number of animals disappears . People kill animals for different aims: e.g. people hunt whales for their meat and oil; elephants for their tusks, crocodiles for their leather and so on. And also animals are used for medical experiments. The most wide – speared from such animals are monkeys. Modern life is bad for animals, birds, fish. The air isn't fresh and the water isn't pure. They don't have good meal and facilities for the life. You can find their names in the Red Book.

The planet Earth is only a tiny part of the universe, but it's the only place where human beings can live. Today, our planet is in serious danger. Acid rains, global warming, air and water pollution, overpopulation are the problems that threaten human life on Earth.

Who is to blame for the disaster? The answer is simple: all of us. Our forests are disappearing because they are cut down or burnt. If this trend continues, one day we won't have enough oxygen to breathe.

The seas are in danger. They are filled with poison: industrial and nuclear waste, chemical fertilisers and pesticides. The Mediterranean is already nearly dead; the North Sea is following. The Aral Sea is on the brink of extinction. If nothing is done about it, one day nothing will be able to live in the seas. Every ten minutes one kind of animal, plant or insect dies out for ever. If nothing is done about it, one million species that are alive today may soon become extinct.

Air pollution is another serious problem. In Cairo just breathing the air is dangerous — equivalent to smoking two packs of cigarettes a day. The same holds true for many Russian cities. Factories emit tons of harmful chemicals. These emissions have disastrous consequences for our planet. They are the main reason for the greenhouse effect and acid rains. An even greater threat are nuclear power stations. We all know how tragic the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster are.

Fortunately, it's not too late to solve these problems. We have the time, the money and even the technology to make our planet a better, cleaner and safer place. We can plant trees and create parks for endangered species. We can recycle litter. We can support green parties and put pressure on those in power. Together we can save the planet and all of us with it.

Of course, people can't stay indifferent to these problems. There are a lot of special organizations, which try to save our nature. The most known are: The Royal Society for the prevention of cruelty to animals (The RSPCA), the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Greenpeace. The RSPCA tries to protect animals from bad use. It operates big nation campaigns aimed at lost pets, circus animals. The WWF rescued several species of animals, mammals as well as birds. These organization also helped to create more than 250 National parks. Greenpeace began its work 20 years ago from saving whales. And now Greenpeace is a world-famous organization, which saves plants, animals and people. These organization, want to rescue animals, to help them to survive and to save jungle rain forests, which are in danger of destruction. And they also help animals 'cause many of them have already gone as they have nowhere to live. Their homes, the trees, have disappeared. We must save wild animals. And we must find the right way to save land, people and animals. We must lake care of nature, because we are part of it.

Vocabulary

 environment — окружающая среда

 pollution — загрязнение

 protection — защита

to influence smth (greatly) — влиять (сильно)

 safety — безопасность

 to take actions — принимать меры

 resources— ресурсы

 a habitat — место обитания

Упражнение 1.  Прочитайте текст и письменно ответьте на вопросы

1. What harm does a man inflict on nature?
2.  How to prevent global problems on Earth?
3. What can you personally do to protect the environment?

Упражнение 2. Прочитайте текст  напротив каждого высказывания поставьте T(правда) F(не правда)

1.         We live on the Earth

2.         There is a lot of water on the Earth

3.         On the ground plants do not grow

4.         People lived on land many years ago

5.         The person is not dependent on the planet

6.         Planet is a tiny part of the universe

7.         We produce oil on Jupiter.

8.         We do not care about the Earth

9.        Earth is our home

10.         It is necessary to solve the problem of ecology

Упражнение 3. Из данных слов составьте предложения

1.         Live, we, the, earth, on

2.         Is, water, the, lot, earth, there, on, of

3.         Have, out, people, on, planet, lived, many, for, years

4.        It, we, because , must, part, are , take, of, nature, care, of, we.

СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНОЕ В ФУНКЦИИ ОПРЕДЕЛЕНИЯ ДРУГОГО СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНОГО

В английском языке в связи с исчезновением падежных окончаний определяемое существительное и существительное в функции определения, стоящее после определяемого слова, как правило, связаны предлогом.

The new methods of labour –  новые методы труда.

Но определение, выраженное существительным, может также и предшествовать определяемому слову.

СРАВНИТЕ:

sugar cane – сахарный тростник

cane sugar – тростниковый сахар

В современной научной, технической и публицистической литературе все шире используется определение, выраженное существительным, стоящим перед определяемым словом.

Английские существительные, употребляемые в функции определения, переводятся на русский язык:

1) прилагательным

a trade union – профессиональный союз

home work – домашняя работа

2) существительным в одном из косвенных падежей без предлога или с предлогом

a watch pocket – карман для часов

body temperature – температура тела

power supply – снабжение энергией

Перевод словосочетаний надо начинать с главного слова (определяемого существительного), которое стоит в конце словосочетания.

oil industry workers – работники нефтяной промышленности

Например: table window — речь идет об окне — окно (какое?) окно, расположенное над столом / у стола;

Иногда возможности использования существительного в притяжательном падеже или существительного в функции определения трудноразличимы. Ориентируемся по вопросу:

Управляющий банка не знал, где банковские деньги (деньги банка). - Управляющий (какой?);деньги(чьи?) The bank manager did not know where the bank's money was. (слово money - деньги используется в английском языке только в единственном числе, поэтому was).

Рассматриваемый нами случай часто взаимозаменяем с использованием существительного в родительном падеже (с предлогом of):

 The manager of the bank didn't know where the bank's money was.

Упражнение 1. Переведите следующие словосочетания на русский язык:

Oil export. Exsport oil. Mass production. Production achievements. A rest home. Home work. A picture gallery. The Revolution Museum. Our Institute building. Television program. A bus stop. A railway station. A river port. Water-colour painting. World Peace Congress. A partisan detachment. Peace partisans. The one-year program. The present day English  language. The twentieth century music. A three-room flat. Correspondence education. High quality textbooks. Study films. Tape recorders. Day shift. Forein languages studies. Liberation movement. Research methods. Wind direction. Wind velocity. Soviet delegates’ speeches. A ten per-cent wage increase. The North Pole expedition. The Seven-year economic development plan. Cosmic ray studies. Space travel. Water power. Steam power. Electric power generation. Air pressure. A new transformer. Transformer steel. Long distance lines. Alternating current transformers. Wide scale electrification.  Radionavigation  principles. A sound wave.

Упражнение 2.  Спишите и переведите группы слов, обращая внимание на перевод притяжательной конструкции.

ОБРАЗЕЦ: this country’s economy – экономика этой страны, these countries’ economy – экономика этих стран.

That judge’s cases, the courts’ sentences, Procurator’s Office, people’s rights and duties, these lawyers’ work, the deputies’ reports.

The Problem of Environmental Protection

Environmental protection is the main problem facing humanity nowadays. The image of a sick planet has become firmly established in the public mind lately.

Ten years ago the word 'ecology' hardly meant anything for the majority of people, but today we can't help bearing it in our minds. It has happened because of the growing effect of the rapid industrial development of the natural world which has negative features of its own. As a matter of fact the state of environment has greatly worsened of late.

There is no doubt that soil, water and air are contaminated with toxic wastes. Over the past few years we have been constantly speaking about ozone holes, droughts, high level of radiation, about food contaminated with chemicals. Scientists in many countries are very much concerned about drastic changes in weather patterns. The worst drought, the mildest winter and the most devastating hurricanes have become typical in those parts of the world where they used to be a rare occurrence.

Weather patterns have been changing recently due to the global warming-up process and its major reason — the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is created by carbon dioxide emissions, released by industrial facilities and a constantly increasing number of cars. Thus it is of vital importance that the world should start cutting down the release of gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect. What is the reason for people getting so much worried about the state of environment? The answer to this question is fairly simple. The thing is the deterioration of the environment is telling heavily on people. They are paying for this with their health. And it is obvious what all people need is a healthy environment.

To solve this burning problem it is necessary for people to combine efforts, to raise safety standards at all industrial facilities, to adequately process by-products of industry, to set up an international space laboratory to monitor the state of environment and set up an international centre for emergency environmental assistance. All these measures will help us in solving these important problems and prevent us from dangerous illnesses and diseases.

Vocabulary:

рollution - загрязнение окружающей среды;

environment - окружающая среда;

the ozone layer - озоновый слой;

global warming - глобальное потепление;

acid rain - кислотные дожди;

car exhaust fumes - автомобильные выхлопные газы;

dumping industrial waste in seas and rivers - cброс промышленных отходов в моря и реки;

to recycle - перерабатывать;

greenhouse effect – парниковый эффект

Упражнение 1. Прочитайте текст и письменно ответьте на вопрос

What is necessary to solve the global environmental problem?

Упражнение 2. Зная перевод такса выполните тест

1.         What problem faces us?

1. Protection of the environment
2. 2.        Globalization
3. 3.        Emission of garbage into the atmosphere

2.         Why has the environment deteriorated?

1. of the state of the Earth
2. of Ecology
3. due to the growing effect with negative impact

3.         What does soil contaminat?

1. Toxic wastes
2. Water and carbon dioxide
3. Drought

4.         Is climate change?

1. Yes, for the worse
2. 2.        No
3. 3.        Everything is good

5.         What creates the greenhouse effect?

1. Emissions of carbon dioxide
2. Drought, mild Winter
3. High level of radiation

6.         What can we do to solve this problem?

1. Nothing
2. Less toxic substances
3. Improve safety standards

 Упражнение 3. Вставьте пропущенные слова

Has, has, a, the, the, are, a, is, are, the, the,

1.         As ___matter of fact the state of environment ___ greatly worsened of late.

2.         There ___no doubt that soil, water and air ___ contaminated with toxic wastes

3.         ___ image of ___sick planet has become firmly established in the public mind lately.

4.         ___worst drought, ___ mildest winter and the most devastating hurricanes have become typical

5.         They ___ paying for this with their health.

ОБОРОТ  THERE IS/ARE (повторение)

Оборот there is / there are характерно использовать для определения местоположения предметов или если в предложении не используется глагола.

Структура предложения следующая: there is/are + существительное + обстоятельство места.

There is используется только для существительных единственного числа:

There is a cat in the garden – кот (находится) в саду.

Также чаще всего можно услышать сокращенную форму there is – there’s:

There’s an apple on the table – на столе (лежит) яблоко.

There’s a pen on the school desk – на парте (лежит) ручка.

Неопределенный артикль a/an можно заменить числителем one:

There is one chair in my room – в моей комнате (есть) одна табуретка.

There are используется для существительных множественного числа:

There are twenty students in the class – в классе (есть) двадцать студентов.

There are four girls and two boys in her family – в её семье (имеются) 4 девочки и 2 мальчика.

Использование there в начале предложения, никак не влияет на использование there в конце этого предложения:

There are big grey clouds over there – там (находятся) большие серые облака.

Для ясности, предложение there is/are лучше переводить с обстоятельства места.

Утвердительное предложение there is/are можно переконструировать в вопросительное. Для этого достаточно поменять местами there и is/are:

Is there a train to Moscow? –  Есть ли поезд до Москвы?

Is there a good restaurant in the street? – На этой лице хороший ресторан?

Утвердительные предложения с оборотом there is/are можно преобразовывать и в отрицательные предложения, путем добавления отрицательной частицы not:

There is not a knife in your bag – в твоей сумке нет ножа.

There are not a instruments in my hangar – в моем ангаре нету инструмента.

Или же можно добавить отрицательное слово no(нет):

There is no sugar in this cup of coffee – в этой чашке кофе нету сахара;

There are no wheels in that car – в той машине нету колес;

There is употребляется только с существительными единственного числа, соответственно there are с существительными множественного числа. Оба оборота служат для пояснения, определения или высказывания о местоположении предмета.

Порядок построения оборота – сначала there is/are, далее существительное и в конце обстоятельство. Оборот there is/are может принимать отрицательную и вопросительную форму. И переводить предложения с there is/are желательно с обстоятельства места.

Упражнение 1.  Вставьте is или are.

There _____ two cups of tea on the table. There _____ some milk in the cup. There _____ an orange in the salad. There _____ six balls in the box. There _____ some cheese on the plate. There ______ a blue chair at the door. There _____ five chicks and a hen on the farm. There _____ a table and nine desks in the classroom. There _____ a big window to the left of the door. There _____ three rooms in our country house. _____ there three cups on the coffee-table? ____ there a carpet on the floor? There _____ no cats in the sitting room. There_____ a cat on the table. There_____ 3 dogs in the box There _____4 hens in the house. There _____ a pot on the table. _____ there a bathroom near the kitchen

Упражнение2. Напишите каждое предложение в отрицательной и вопросительной форме.

1. There are many pupils in the classroom.
2. There is some meat on the plate.
3. There are four parks in the city.  

Упражнение 3.  Составьте и запиши предложения.

1.         pears / there / ten / in the / are / bag / .

2.         aren’t / pupils / there / classroom / in the / .

3.         an egg / on the / there / plate / is / ?

4.         on the / there / a / cat / chair / is / white / .

5.         a turtle / on / there / isn’t / farm / this / .

6.         at the / two / bikes / door / are / there / ?

The international organizations for the conservation of nature

For the last centuries mankind has made an unprecedented technological breakthrough. There are technologies that can significantly change the world. If before the human impact on nature could not break the fragile ecological balance, the new ingenious inventions allowed him to achieve this deplorable result. As a result, many species of animals were destroyed, many living creatures are on the verge of extinction, on Earth, large-scale climate changes begin. The results of human activity cause such monstrous damage to the environment that more people are beginning to worry about the future of our planet.

Numerous public organizations for the protection of nature have become the result of growing concern. Today they conduct their activities everywhere, monitor the preservation of a unique natural heritage, uniting millions of enthusiasts around the globe. But this was not always the case, the great path was pioneered by eco-movement to achieve the current state of affairs.

Today, the society is strongly alarmed by changes in the environment caused by human activities. Many countries have adopted a number of laws that control environmental pollution, and organizations such as Greenpeace or the World Wildlife Fund have acquired millions of supporters around the world. Practically in any more or less large country there are representations of international organizations for nature protection. Internet communities and themed sites allow you to quickly and easily access information related to the environment. Also, the Internet allows you to coordinate the efforts of people around the planet - here everyone can contribute to the protection of the environment

Science also does not stand still, new inventions approaching the era of clean energy are constantly appearing. Many countries began actively using natural energy: wind, water, geothermal sources, the sun, etc. Of course, technogenic emissions did not decrease, and corporations still mercilessly exploit nature for profit. But the general interest in the problem of ecology allows us to hope for a brighter future.

Vocabulary:

mankind – человечество

unprecedented – беспрецедентный

breakthrough – прорыв

impact – воздействие

fragile – хрупкий

creatures – существа

concern – беспокойство

alarmed – встревоженный

emissions – выбросы

allows – позволяет

Упражнение 1. Напротив каждого высказывания поставьте T(правда) F(не правда)

1.         Man has made a technological breakthrough in the future

2.         Technologies change the world

3.         Many plants and animals are included in the red book

4.         Man violated nature

5.         Many creatures on the brink of survival

6.         Man does not damage the environment

7.         The society is alarmed by today's situation

8.         Technological emissions have decreased

9.         All countries are concerned about the state of the environment

10.         Taxin emissions are acceptable to humans

Упражнение 2. Составьте 2-3 предложения употребляя эти слова

Nature
Technologies
Person
Environment
Damage

Упражнение 3. Составьте план к тексту

Упражнение 4. Представьте информацию о международных организациях по охране природы. На деятельности одной из них расскажите поподробнее.

ОБОРОТ  THERE IS/ARE (повторение)

Оборот there is \ there are — это один из случаев, когда в русском языке нет прямого, стопроцентного эквивалента английской конструкции. Между тем, оборот there is \ there are употребляется довольно часто не только в деловом или научном языке, но и в обыденной повседневной речи.

Буквально there is переводится как «здесь есть\присутствует», а there are как «здесь есть\присутствуют» (во множественном числе). Но точнее будет сказать, что оборот there + to be используется для обозначения присутствия или наличия чего-либо или кого-либо.

Не забывайте ставить there is/there are в начало, когда вы говорите о местоположении чего-либо. Это поможет с самого начала понять, что речь идет о нахождении чего-то где-то. В таком предложении  каждое слово находится на своем определенном месте.

Порядок слов в предложении.

Также с конструкцией there is / there are часто употребляется слово no (нет). Но сокращения в таких фразах не допускаются, потому что not - это частичка, которую можно сократить, a no - это уже слово которое сократить нельзя.

При перечислении предметов используется  there  is , если первый предмет из перечисленных стоит в единственном числе и there are, если первый предмет из перечисленных стоит во множественном числе

Предлоги места – служебные слова, связывающие между собой члены предложения и тесно связаны с применением конструкции there is / there are.

ЗАПОМНИТЕ  ИСКЛЮЧЕНИЯ:

 на дереве — in the tree, на улице — in the street, на картине — in the picture.

Сравним два предложения «на столе ваза» и «ваза на столе». Первое начинается с обстоятельства места, а второе с подлежащего, соответственно, для перевода первого предложения мы используем There is a…. – “ there is a vase on the table” , а  второе предложение переводим без этой конструкции —  “the vase is on the table” . Если подлежащее (предмет, о котором  говорится в предложении) единственного числа, то используется there is, а если множественного, то there are.

Например:

There is an old church in this town. — В этом городе есть старая церковь.

There is always a way out. — Выход всегда есть.

There are two ways out of this tunnel. — Из этого тоннеля есть два выхода.

Упражнение 1.  Вставьте is или are.

1. There _____ two cups of tea on the table.
2. There _____ an orange in the salad.
3. There _____ some cheese on the plate.
4. There ______ a blue chair at the door.
5. There _____ five chicks and a hen on the farm.
6. There _____ a table and nine desks in the classroom.
7. There _____ three rooms in our country house.
8. ____ there a carpet on the floor?
9. There _____ no cats in the sitting room.
10. There_____ a cat on the table.
11. There_____ 3 dogs in the box
12. There _____ a pot on the table.
13. _____ there a bathroom near the kitchen?
14. _____  there a kitchen under your bedroom?

Упражнение 2.  Вставьте There's / There’re.

1. _________ some sandwiches in the fridge.
2. _________ a biscuit on the plate.
3. _________ some jam on the table.
4. _________ some cornflakes in the cupboard.
5. _________ some sugar in the glass.
6. _________ two cups of tea on the table.

Упражнение 3. Напишите каждое предложение в отрицательной и вопросительной форме.

1. There are many pupils in the classroom.
2. There is some meat on the plate.
3. There are four parks in the city.

Упражнение 4.  Составьте и запишите  предложения.

1. pears / there / ten / in the / are / bag / .

2. aren’t / pupils / there / classroom / in the / .

3. an egg / on the / there / plate / is / ?

5. a turtle / on / there / isn’t / farm / this / .

6. at the / two / bikes / door / are / there / ?

THEME 3.4 MY FUTURE PROFESSION IS VETERINARIAN

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS

The anatomy and physiology of the horse

The internal anatomy is concerned with the study of the digestive system (the mouth, the esophagus, the stomach, the small intestine, the large intestine: cecum, colon), reproductive system (mare, stallion; teeth; feet/hooves), skeletal system (ligaments and tendons), muscular system, respiratory system and circulatory system.

External anatomy. Back is an area, where the saddle goes, begins at the end of the withers, extends to the last thoracic vertebrae.

Barrel is the main body area of the horse, enclosing the rib cage and the major internal organs.

Cannon bone is the area between the knee or hock and the fetlock joint, sometimes called the “shin” of the horse, though technically it is the metacarpal.

Chestnut is a callosity on the inside of each leg.

Chin groove is the part of the horse's head behind the lower lip and chin.

It is an area where the curb chain is fastened.

Coronet or coronary band is the ring of soft tissue just above the horny

hoof that blends into the skin of the leg.

Crest is the upper portion of the neck where the mane grows.

Croup is the top line of the horse's hindquarters, beginning at the hip, extending proximate to the sacral vertebrae and stopping at the dock of the tail.

Dock is the point where the tail connects to the rear of the horse.

Elbow is the joint of the front leg at the point where the belly of the horse meets the leg.

Ergot is a callosity on the back of the fetlock. Fetlock is sometimes called the “ankle” of the horse, though it is not the same skeletal structure as an ankle in humans.

Forearm is the area of the front leg between the knee and elbow. It consists of the fused radius and ulna, and all the tissue around these bones. Anatomically it is called the antebrachium.

Forelock is the continuation of the mane, which hangs from between the ears down onto the forehead of the horse.

Frog is the highly elastic wedge-shaped mass on the underside of the hoof, which normally makes contact with the ground every stride, supports both the locomotion and circulation of the horse.

Girth or heart girth is the area right behind the elbow of the horse, where the girth of the saddle would go, this area should be where the barrel is at its greatest diameter in a properly-conditioned horse that is not pregnant or obese.

Hock is the tarsus of the horse (hind limb equivalent to the human ankle and heel), the large joint on the hind leg.

Hoof is the foot of the horse. The hoof wall is the tough outside covering of the hoof that comes into contact with the ground. The hoof wall is, in many respects, a much larger and stronger version of the human fingernail.

Jugular groove is the line of indentation on the lower portion of the neck can be seen from either side, just above the windpipe. Beneath this area run the jugular vein, the carotid artery and part of the sympathetic trunk.

Knee is the carpus of the horse, the large joint in the front legs, above the cannon bone.

Loin is the area right behind the saddle, going from the last rib of the horse to the croup. Anatomically it is approximated to the lumbar spine.

Mane is a long and relatively coarse hair growing from the dorsal ridge of the neck, lying on either the left or right side of the neck.

Muzzle consists of the chin, mouth, and nostrils.

Pastern is the connection between the coronet and the fetlock. It is made up of the middle and proximal phalanx.

Splints are the bones found on each of the legs, on either side of the cannon bone. Partially vestigial, these bones support the corresponding carpal bones in the forelimb, and the corresponding tarsal bones in the hindlimb.

Tail consists of both the living part of the tail (which consists of the coccygeal vertebrae, muscles, and ligaments), as well as the long hairs which grow from the living part.

Digestive system. Horses are grazing animals, adapted to eating small amounts of the same kind of food all day long. In the wild, the horse adapted to eating prairie grasses in semi-arid regions and traveling significant distances each day in order to obtain adequate nutrition. The digestive system of a horse is about 100 feet (30 m) long, and most of this is intestines.

The mouth. Digestion begins in the mouth, which is also called the “oral cavity”. It is made up of the teeth, the hard palate, the soft palate, the tongue and related muscles, the cheeks and the lips. Horses also have three pairs of salivary glands, the parotid (largest salivary gland and located near the poll), submaxillary (located in the jaw), and sublingual (located under the tongue). The front teeth of the horse, called incisors, clip forage, and food is then pushed back in the mouth by the tongue, and ground up for swallowing by the premolars and molars.

The esophagus. The esophagus is about 4–5 feet in length, and carries food to the stomach. A muscular ring, called the cardiac sphincter, connects the stomach to the esophagus. This sphincter is very well developed in horses. This and the oblique angle at which the esophagus connects to the stomach explain why horses cannot vomit. The esophagus is also the area of the digestive tract where horses may suffer from choke.

The stomach. Horses have a relatively small stomach for their size, and this limits the amount of feed a horse can take in at one time. The horse has a stomach with a capacity of only four gallons, and works best when it contains about two gallons. In the stomach, assorted acids and the enzyme pepsin break down food. Pepsin allows for the further breakdown of proteins into amino acid chains. Additionally, the stomach absorbs some water, as well as ions and lipid soluble compounds. The end product is food broken down into chyme. It then leaves the stomach through the pyloric valve, which controls the flow of food out of stomach.

The small intestine. The horse’s small intestine is 50 to 70 feet (21 m) long and holds 10 to 12 gallons. It has three parts, the duodenum, jejunum and ileum. The majority of digestion occurs in the duodenum while the majority of absorption occurs in the jejunum. Bile from the liver aids in digesting fats in the duodenum combined with enzymes from the pancreas and small intestine. Horses do not have a gall bladder, so bile flows constantly. Most food is digested and absorbed into the bloodstream from the small intestine, including proteins, simple carbohydrate, fats, and vitamines A, D, and E. Any remaining liquids and roughage move into the large intestine.

The large intestine. The cecum is the first section of the large intestine. It is a cul-de-sac pouch, about 4 feet (1.2 m) long that holds 7 to 8 gallons. It contains bacteria that digest cellulose plant fiber through fermentation. These bacteria feed upon digestive chyme, and also produce certain fat-soluble vitamins which are absorbed by the horse. The large colon, small colon, and rectum make up the remainder of the large intestine. The large colon is 10–12 feet long and holds up to 20 gallons of semi-liquid matter. It is made up of the right lower (ventral) colon, the left lower (ventral) colon, the left upper (dorsal) colon, the right upper (dorsal) colon, and the transverse colon, in that order. Three flexures are also named; the sternal flexure, between right and left ventral colon; the pelvic flexure, between left dorsal and left ventral colon; the diaphragmatic flexure, between left dorsal and right dorsal colon. The main purpose of the large colon is to absorb carbohydrates, which were broken down from cellulose in the cecum. Due to its many twists and turns, it is a common place for a type of horse colic called an impaction. The small colon is 10–12 feet in length and holds only 5 gallons of material. It is the area where the majority of water in the horse's diet is absorbed, and is the place where fecal balls are formed. The rectum is about one foot long, and acts as a holding chamber for waste matter, which is then expelled from the  body via the anus.

Reproductive system. The reproductive system of the mare is responsible for controlling gestation, birth, lactation, and mating behavior of the mare. It lies ventral to the 4th or 5th lumbar vertebrae, although its position within the mare can vary depending on the movement of the intestines and distention of the bladder. The mare has two ovaries, usually 7–8 cm in length and 3–4 cm thick that generally tend to decrease in size as the mare ages. The ovaries connect to the fallopian tubes (oviducts), which serve to move the ovum from the ovary to the uterus. To do so, the oviducts are lined with a layer of cilia, which produce a current that flows toward the uterus. Each oviduct attaches to one of the two horns of the uterus, which are approximately 20–25 cm in length. These horns attach to the body of the uterus (18–20 cm long). Caudal to the uterus is the cervix, about 5–7 cm long, which enters the vagina. Usually 3.5–4 cm in diameter, it can expand to allow the passage of the foal. The vagina of the mare is 15–20 cm long, and is quite elastic, allowing it to expand. The vulva is the external opening of the vagina, and consists of the clitoris and two labia. It lies ventral to the rectum. The mare has two mammary glands, which are smaller in virgin mares. They have two ducts each, which open externally. The reproductive system of the stallion is responsible for the sexual behavior and secondary sex characteristics (such as a large crest) of the stallion. The external genitalia comprise: the testes, which are suspended horizontally within the scrotum. The testis of an average stallion is ovoid from 8 to 12 cm long; the penis, within the prepuce, also known as the “sheath”. When not erect, the penis is housed within the prepuce, 50 cm long and 2.5 to 6 cm in diameter with the distal end 15 to 20 cm. When erect, the penis doubles in length and thickness and the glands increases by 3 to 4 times. The urethra opens within the urethral fossa, a small pouch at the distal end of the glands, the testes, which are suspended horizontally within the scrotum. The internal genitalia comprise the accessory sex glands: vesicular glands; prostate gland; and bulbourethral glands. These contribute fluid to the semen at ejaculation, but are not strictly necessary for fertility.

Teeth. A horse's teeth include incisors, premolars, molars, and sometimes canine teeth. A horse's incisors, premolars, and molars, once fully developed, continue to erupt throughout its lifetime as the grinding surface is worn down through chewing.

Hoof. The hoof of the horse encases the second and third phalanx of the lower limbs, analogous to the fingertip or toe tip of a human. In essence, a horse travels on its “tiptoes”. The hoof wall is a much larger, thicker and stronger version of the human fingernail or toenail, made up of similar materials, primarily keratin, and a very strong protein molecule. The horse's hoof contains a high proportion of sulfur-containing amino acids which contribute to its resilience and toughness.

Skeletal system. The skeleton of the horse has three major functions in the body. It protects vital organs, provides framework, and supports soft parts of the body. Horses have 205 bones, which are divided into the appendicular skeleton (the legs) and the axial skeleton (the skull, vertebral column, sternum, and ribs). Both pelvic and thoracic limbs contain the same number of bones, 20 bones per limb. Bones are connected to muscles via tendons and other bones via ligaments. Bones are also used to store minerals, and are the site of red blood cell formation.

Ligaments. Ligaments attach bone to bone or bone to tendon, and are vital in stabilizing joints as well as supporting structures. They are made up of fibrous material that is generally quite strong. Due to their relatively poor blood supply, ligament injuries generally take a long time to heal.

Tendons. Tendons are сhords of connective tissue attaching muscle to bone, cartilage or other tendons. They are necessary for support of the horse’s body, and translate the force generated by muscles into movement. Tendons are classified as flexors or extensors. As tendons pass near bony prominences, they are protected by a fluid filled synovial structure, either a tendon sheath or a sac called a bursa.

Tendinitis is most commonly seen in high performance horses that gallop or jump. When a tendon is damaged the healing process is slow because tendons have a poor blood supply, reducing the availability of nutrients and oxygen to the tendon. Scar tissue within the tendon decreases the overall elasticity in the damaged section of the tendon as well, causing an increase in strain on adjacent uninjured tissue.

Muscular system. Muscles are commonly arranged in pairs so that they oppose each other, with one flexing the joint (a flexor muscle) and the other extending it (extensor muscle). A muscle is made up of several muscle bundles, which in turn are made up of muscle fibers. Muscle fibers have myofibrils, which are able to contract due to actin and myosin.

Respiratory system. The horse's respiratory system consists of the nostrils, pharynx, larynx, trachea, diaphragm, and lungs. Additionally, the nasolacrimal duct and sinuses are connected to the nasal passage. The horse's respiratory system not only allows the animal to breathe, but also is important in the horse's sense of smell (olfactory ability) as well as in communicating.

Circulatory system. The horse's circulatory system includes the fourchambered heart, as well as the blood and blood vessels. Its main purpose is to circulate blood throughout the body to deliver oxygen and nutrients to tissues, and to remove waste from these tissues.

Eyes. The horse has the largest eye of all land mammals, and is designed to help the horse as a prey animal. It provides the horse with a wide field of monocular vision, as well as good visual acuity and some ability to see color. Because the horse's vision is closely tied to his behavior, the horse's visual abilities are often taken into account when handling and training the animal.

Hearing. The pinna of a horse's ears can rotate in any direction to pick up sounds. The hearing of horses is good, superior to that of humans, and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180°, giving the potential for 360° hearing without having to move the head. Often, the eye of the horse is looking in the same direction as the ear is directed.(from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Anatomical Nomenclature in the book “Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria”)

Vocabulary

cecum ['si:kəm] слепая кишка

colon ['kəʊlɒn] ободочная кишка

mare [mεə] кобыла

stallion ['stæljən] жеребец

ligament ['ligəmənt] связка

saddle [sædl] седло

barrel ['bærəl] брюхо

rib [rib] ребро

cannon bone ['kænən] берцовая кость

shin [∫in] голень

metacarpal ["metə'ka:pəl] пястный, пястная кость

chestnut ['t∫estnΛt] бабка (у лошади), гнедая лошадь

callosity [kæ'lɒsiti] затвердение (на коже), мозоль

chin [t∫in] подбородок

groove [gru:v] бороздка, желобок, углубление

curb [kə:b] подгубный ремень, цепка (уздечки), узда

chain [t∫ein] цепь, цепочка

coronet ['kɒrənit] нижняя часть бабки (у лошади), волосень

coronary ['kɒrənəri] коронарный

band [bænd] фиксатор, тяж (диск)

ring [riŋ] кольцо

crest [krest] гребень

croup [kru:p] круп

dock [dɒk] репица (хвоста животного), обрубленный хвост

elbow ['elbɒu] локоть

ergot ['ə:gət] спорынья

fetlock ['fetlɒk] щетка (волосы за копытом у лошади)

forearm ['fɒ:rɒ:m] предплечье

fused radius [fju:zd 'reidjəs] лучевая кость

antebrachium ["ænti'breikiəm] предплечье

forelock ['fɒ:lɒk] прядь волос на лбу

frog [frog] стрелка (в копыте лошади)

wedge-shaped ["wedʒ'∫eipt] имеющий форму клина

girth [gə:θ] подпруга, подтягивать подпругу

obese [əu'bi:s] тучный, страдающий ожирением

hock [hɒk] коленное сухожилие

tarsus ['ta:səs] предплюсна

hoof [hu:f] копыто

fingernail ['fingəneil] ноготь

windpipe ['windpaip] дыхательное горло

jugular vein ['dʒΛgjulə vein] яремная вена

carotid artery [kə'rɒtid 'a:təri] сонная артерия

sympathetic trunk ["simpə'θetik trΛnk] симпатический ствол

сarpus ['ka:pəs] запястье

loin ['lɒin] поясница

lumbar ['lΛmbə] поясничный

spine ['spain] позвоночный столб

mane [mein] грива

coarse [kɒ:s] грубый

dorsal ['dɒ:səl] дорсальный, спинной дорсальный, спинной

ridge [ridʒ] гребень, выступ

muzzle [mΛzl] морда

pastern ['pæstə:n] бабка (у лошади)

middle [midl] средний

proximal ['prɒksiməl] проксимальный

phalanx ['fælæŋks] фаланга

splint [splint] шина

vestigial [ves'tidʒiəl] рудиментарный

carpal ['ka:pəl] запястный

forelimb ['fɒ:limb] передняя конечность

tarsal ['ta:səl] предплюсневой

coccygeal [kɒk'sidʒiəl] копчиковый

hard palate [ha:d'pælit] твердое небо

parotid [pə'rɒtid] околоушной

submaxillary ["sΛbmæk'siləri] субмаксиллярный

sublingual ["sΛb'liŋgwəl] подъязычный

incisor [in'saizə] резец, передний зуб

to clip [klip] отсекать, обрывать

cardiac sphincter ['ka:diək 'sfiŋktə] кардиальный сфинктер

oblique angle [ə'bli:k æŋgl] косой угол

chyme [kaim] химус, пищевая кашица

pyloric valve [pi'lɒric vælv] пилорический клапан

jejunum [dʒi'dʒu:nəm] тощая кишка

ileum ['iliəm] подвздошная кишка

cul-de-sac ['kuldə'sæk] слепой мешок

transverse colon ['trænzvə:s 'kəulə] поперечная, ободочная кишка

Sternal ['stə:nəl] стериальный

flexure ['flek∫ə] изгиб

pelvic ['pelvik] тазовый

dorsal ['dɒ:səl] дорсальный

colon ['kəulən] ободочная кишка

ventral ['ventrəl] брюшной

diaphragmatic flexure ["daiəfræg'mætik 'flek∫ə] диафрагмальный изгиб

impaction [im'pæk∫ən] закупорка

fecal ['fi:kəl] каловый, фекальный

anus ['einəs] задний проход, анус

Fallopian tubes [fə"ləʊpiən 'tju:bz] фаллопиевы трубы

oviduct ['əʊvidΛkt] яйцевод

ovum ['əʊvəm] яйцеклетка зрелая

uterus ['ju:tərəs] матка

cilia ['siliə] ресница, ресничка

vagina [və'dʒainə] влагалище

foal [fəʊl] жеребенок, жеребиться

clitoris ['klitəris] клитор

labium, pl. labia ['ləibiəm], ['leibiə] губа

mammary gland ['mæməri glænd] молочная железа

virgin ['və: dʒin] девственник, девственница

duct [dΛkt] проток

stallion [stæljən] жеребец

genitalia ["dʒeni'teiliə] гениталии, половые органы

scrotum ['skrəutəm] мошонка

testis [testis] семенник

ovoid ['əuvɒid] яйцевидный, яйцеобразный

prepuce ['pri:pju:s] крайняя плоть

sheath [∫i:θ] оболочка

gland [glænd] железа

urethral fossa [juə'ri:θrəl 'fɒsə] уретральная ямка

vesicular [vi'sikjulə] везикулярный

prostate gland ['prɒsteit glænd] предстательная железа

bulbourethral ["bΛlbɒujuə'ri:θrəl] бульбоуретральный

ejaculation [idʒekju'lei∫n] эякуляция

hoof [hu:f] копыто

framework ['freimwə:k] зубной мост, зубной протез

appendicular ["æpen'dikjʊlə] аппендикулярный, относящийся к

червеобразному отростку

axial skeleton ['æksiəl 'skelitn] осевой скелет

fibrous ['faibrəs] волокнистый

to heal [hi:l] излечивать, способствовать заживлению

сhord [kɒ:d] хорда

cartilage ['ka:t(ə)lidʒ] хрящ

flexor ['fleksə] флексор, мышца-сгибатель

extensor [iks'tensə] разгибатель, мышца-экстензор

fibroblast ["faibrəʊ'blæst] фибропластическая ткань

synovial [si'nɒviəl] синовиальный

bursa ['bə:sə] сумка

tendonitis ['tendənitis] тендинит

healing ['hi:liŋ] заживление

adjacent [ə'dʒeisənt] соседний, примыкающий

myofibril [maiɒu'fibril] миофибрилла

actin ['æktin] актин

myosin [mai'ɒuzin] миозин

nasolacrimal duct ["neizɒu'lækriməl] носослезный проток

olfactory [ɒl'fæktəri] обонятельный

monocular vision [mɒ'nɒkjulə viʒən] монокулярное зрение

pinna, pl.pinnae ['pinə], ['pini:] наружное ухо

Упражнение 1. Ответьте на вопросы.

1. What are the main systems of internal anatomy?

2. How many bones of the horse body do you know? What are their functions?

3. What are the types of the teeth?

4. How many teeth has the horse got?

5. What does the digestive system look like?

6. What organs of the mouth does the horse have?

7. What can you tell about the circulatory system?

8. What organs does the horse's respiratory system consist of?

9. What muscles do you know? What are their functions?

10. How are bones connected to muscles?

11. What is the skeleton composed of?

12. What structure does the genital system of the horse have?

13. What structure and attitude does the uterus of mare have?

14. What structure and attitude do the genital organs have?

15. What is the food? What substances does the hoof contain?

The anatomy and physiology of the pig

Circulatory system. Pigs, like all mammals, have a four chambered heart. Blood enters the right atrium via the superior and inferior vena cava. The blood is then pumped into the right ventricle from where it is pumped to the lungs to be oxygenated via the pulmonary arteries. Oxygen-rich blood is then pumped through the left atrium and into the left ventricle. Location of the fetal heart will show that the walls of the left ventricle are thicker than those of the other chambers. This is due to fact that the muscle of the left ventricle must be strong enough to pump oxygen-rich blood throughout the body.

The aortic arch of a fetal pig has two arteries attached to it, the brachiocephalic artery and the subclavian artery. As the aorta descends, it splits into two large iliac arteries. An umbilical artery branches near the base of each iliac artery. The umbilical arteries run through the umbilical cord, carrying blood to the maternal placenta where it becomes oxygenated, nutrient-rich, and free of waste. This oxygenated, nutrient-rich blood is then returned to the liver of the fetus via the umbilical vein.

There are only a few differences between the circulatory system of an adult pig and a fetal pig, besides from the umbilical arteries and vein. There is a shunt between the wall of the right and left atrium called the foramen ovale. This allows blood to pass directly from the right to left atrium. There is also the ductus arterius which allows blood from the right atrium to be diverted to the aortic arch. Both of these shunts close a few minutes after birth.

Digestive system. The monogastric digestive system of the fetal pig harbors many similarities with many other mammals. The fetal pig's digestive organs are well developed before birth, although it does not ingest food. These organs include the esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines. Mesenteries serve to connect the organs of the fetal pig together. In order for digestion to occur, the fetal pig would have to ingest food. Instead, it gains much needed nutrition from the mother pig via the umbilical cord. In the adult pig, food will follow the general flow through the esophagus, which can be located behind the tracheae. From the oral cavity, the esophagus leads to the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Other organs developing during fetal pig development such as the gallbladder, pancreas and spleen are all critical in contributing to the overall flow of the digestive system.

After being digested and absorbed, the food follows through the large intestine and is excreted through the rectum and anus. In the fetal pig however, the metabolic wastes are sent back to the mother through the umbilical cord where the mother excretes the wastes. Other remaining wastes remain in the fetal pig until birth.

The oral cavity of the fetal pig begins developing before birth. The tongue's taste buds, located in the enlarged papillae, facilitate food handling after birth. These taste buds develop during fetal development. Adult pigs have up to 15,000 taste buds, a much larger number than the average human tongue, which has 9,000. The dental anatomy of the fetal pig shows differences from adult pigs. The fetal pig develops primary teeth (which are later replaced with permanent teeth). Some may erupt during fetal stage, which is why some of the pigs that are/will be dissected show evidence of teeth. Depending on the age of the fetal pig, it is natural to see eruptions of third incisor and canine in the fetal pig. Because the fetal pigs were still in the mother’s uterus, teeth will still form which supports reasons for hollow unerupted teeth that may be seen during the dissection. Similar to human dental anatomy, the overall dental anatomy of the pig consists of incisors, canines, pre-molars, and molars. Exploring the dental anatomy even further, piglets can have 28th teeth total and adult pigs can have  teeth total. If you would like to compare this to the dental anatomy of a human, there are 20 primary teeth and 28–30 permanent teeth.

Urogenital system of a female pig. The fetal pig urogenital system is similar to the adult pig's system with the exception of the reproductive organs. The fetal pig urinary track is relatively developed and easy to locate during dissection. The kidneys are located behind the abdominal organs and are partially embedded into the dorsal body wall by the spine. The ureters carry the urine to the urinary bladder, the large sack-like organ by the umbilical artery and vein, to the urethra. From there, the urine can be excreted. To externally determine if the fetal pig is a female, there will be a fleshy protrusion ventral near the anus called the genital papilla.

Reproductive system. The female's internal reproductive system is located below the kidneys. The two sac-like organs attached to the coil-like fallopian tubes are the ovaries. The uterus, which becomes the vagina, is located where the fallopian tubes meet. This system can be difficult to find as it is small as well as extremely dorsal and posterior to the other systems.

Male: to externally determine if the fetal pig is male, look for the urogenital opening located behind the umbilical cord. Also note the swelling behind the hind legs of the fetal pig. This will be the scrotum. The male's internal reproductive system has two scrotal sacs, which depending on the age of the fetal pig may or may not have developed testes. The epididymis coil on the testes connects to the vas deferens. The vas deferens crosses over the ureter and enters the urethra, which then connects to the penis located just posterior to the skin. Similar to the female system, the male system may also be difficult to identify all parts. If the fetal pig is indeed male, take caution to not cut very deep into the scrotum when dissecting. (from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

Vocabulary

atrium pl. atria ['ætriəm] предсердие

superior vena cava [sju:'piəriə 'vi:nə 'kævə] верхняя полая вена

inferior vena cava [in'fiəriə 'vi:nə 'kævə] нижняя полая вена

aortic arch [ei'ɒtik a:t∫] дуга аорты

subclavian artery [sΛb'klævjən 'a:təri] подключичная артерия

iliac artery ['iliæk 'a:təri] подвздошная артерия

umbilical artery ["Λmbi'laikəl 'a:təri] пупочная аорта

maternal placenta [mə'tə:nl plə'sentə] материнская плацента

fetus ['fi:təs] плод

foramen ovale [fɒ'reimmen əu'vəil] овальное отверстие

ductus artery ['dΛktəs 'a:təri] артерия семявыносящего

протока shunt [∫Λnt] шунт

monogastric ["mɒnə'gæstrik] одножелудочный

mesentery ['mesəntəri] брыжейка

rectum ['rektəm] прямая кишка

metabolic ["metə'bɒlik] метаболический

taste bud [teist bΛd] вкусовая почка

permanent teeth ['pə:mənənt ti:θ] постоянные зубы

unerupted teeth ["Λni'rΛptid ti:θ] непрорезанные зубы

dissection [di'sek∫n] рассечение

protrusion [prə'tru:ʒn] протрузия

ventral ['ventrəl] брюшной

papilla [pə'pilɒ] сосочек

scrotum ['skrəutəm] мошонка

epididymis ['epi'didimis] эпидидимис

vas deferens [væs'defərəns] семявыносящий проток

Упражнение 1. Ответьте на вопросы.

1. What peculiarities of the structure of сirculatory system do you know?

What is its function?

2. What organs form the digestive system and where are they contained?

What are the functions of the organs of digestion?

3. What is urogenital system? What are the excretory organs? What

functions have they got?

4. What is reproductive system? What are the reproductive organs?

What functions have they got?

The anatomy and physiology of the sheep

Sheep are raised for fleece, meat (lamb, hogget or mutton) and milk.Ewes typically weigh between 45 and 100 kilograms, and the rams between 45 and 160 kilograms.

Teeth. Mature sheep have 32 teeth. As with other ruminants, the eight incisors are in the lower jaw and bite against a hard, toothless pad in the upper jaw; picking off vegetation. There are no canines; instead there is a large gap between the incisors and the premolars. Until the age of four (when all the adult teeth have erupted), it is possible to see the age of sheep from their front teeth, as a pair of incisors erupts each year.

The front teeth are gradually lost as sheep age, making it harder for them to feed and hindering the health. The average life expectancy of a sheep is 10 to 12 years, though some sheep may live as long as 20 years.

Hearing. Vision. Sheep have good hearing, and are sensitive to noise when being handled. Sheep have horizontal slit-shaped pupils, possessing excellent peripheral vision; with visual fields of approximately 270° to 320°, sheep can see behind themselves without turning their heads. However, sheep have poor depth perception; shadows and dips in the ground may cause sheep to balk. In general, sheep have a tendency to move out of the dark and into well-lit areas, and prefer to move uphill when disturbed.

Sense of smell. Sheep also have an excellent sense of smell, and, like all species of their genus, have scent glands just in front of the eyes, and interdigitally on the feet. The foot glands might also be related to reproduction, but alternative reasons, such as secretion of a waste product or a scent marker to help lost sheep find their flock, have also been proposed.

Digestive system. Like all ruminants, sheep have a complex digestive system composed of four chambers, allowing them to break down cellulose from stems, leaves, and seed hulls into simpler carbohydrates. When sheep graze, vegetation is chewed into a mass called a bolus, which is then passed into the first chamber: the rumen. The rumen is a 19 to 38-liter organ in which feed is fermented via a symbiotic relationship with the bacteria, protozoa, and yeasts of the gut flora. The bolus is periodically regurgitated back to the mouth as cud for additional chewing and salivation. Cud chewing is an adaptation allowing ruminants to graze more quickly in the morning, and then fully chew and digest feed later in the day. This is beneficial as grazing, which requires lowering the head, leaves sheep vulnerable to predators, while cud chewing does not.

After fermentation in the rumen, feed passes in to the reticulum and the omasum; special feeds such as grains may bypass the rumen altogether. After the first three chambers, food moves in to the abomasum for final digestion before processing by the intestines. The abomasum is the only one of the four chambers analogous to the human stomach (being the only one that absorbs nutrients for use as energy), and is sometimes called the “true stomach”.

Reproduction. Most sheep are seasonal breeders, although some are able to breed year-round. Ewes generally reach sexual maturity at six to eight months of age, and rams generally at four to six months. Ewes have estrus cycles about every 17 days, during which they emit a scent and indicate readiness through physical displays towards rams. A minority of sheep displays: a preference for homosexuality (8 % on average) or freemartins (female animals that are behaviorally masculine and lack functioning ovaries).

After mating, sheep have a gestation period of about five months, and normal labor may take one to three hours. Although some breeds may regularly throw larger litters of lambs, most produce single or twin lambs. During or soon after labor, ewes and lambs may be confined to small lambing jugs, small pens designed to aid both careful observation of ewes and to cement the bond between them and their lambs.

After the birth, ewes ideally break the amniotic sac (if it is not broken during labor), and begin licking clean the lamb. Most lambs will begin standing within an hour of birth. In normal situations, lambs nurse after standing, receiving vital colostrums milk. Lambs that either fail to nurse or that is rejected by the ewe require aid to live, such as bottle-feeding or fostering by another ewe.

Castration is performed on ram lambs not intended for breeding, although some shepherds choose to avoid the procedure for ethical, economic or practical reasons. Ram lambs that will either be slaughtered or separated from ewes before sexual maturity are not usually castrated. (from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

Vocabulary

sheep husbandry [∫i:p 'hΛzbəndri] животноводство

fleece [fli:s] руно, овечья шерсть; стричь овец

hogget ['hɒgit] молодой боров

mutton ['mΛtən] баранина, овца, баран, бараний

pelt [pelt] шкура, кожа

breed [bri:d] порода, племя, потомство

peripheral [pe'rifərəl] периферический

perception [pə:'sep∫n] перцепция

interdigital ["intə(:)'didʒitl] межпальцевый

bolus ['bəuləs] большая пилюля, шарик, болюс

protozoan ["prəutəu'zəuən] простейший

yeast [i:st] дрожжи

cud [kΛd] жвачка

to chew the cud [t∫u: kΛd ] жевать жвачку

breeder [bri:d] производитель

sheep breeder [∫:p 'bri:də] овцевод

ewe [ju:] овца

sexual maturity ['seksjuəl mə'tjuəriti] половая зрелость

ram [ræm] баран

homosexuality ["həuməuseksju'æliti] гомосексуализм

freemartin ["fri:'ma:tin] городская ласточка

masculine ['ma:skjulin] мужской род

to mate [meit] спариваться

gestation period [dʒes'tei∫n pi:riod] период беременности

lamb [læm] ягненок, барашек, овечка

to lamb [læm] ягниться

pen [pen] небольшой загон

colostrum [kə'lɒstrəm] молозиво

to foster [fɒ:stə] выхаживать

castration [kæst'rei∫n] кастрация

shepherd ['∫epəd] пастух, пасти

Упражнение 1. Ответьте на вопросы.

1. What are the sheep raised for?

2. What are the types of the teeth?

3. How many teeth have the sheep got?

4. What are the teeth for?

5. What are the organs of special sense?

6. What are the organs of sense for?

7. What organs form the digestive system and where are they contained?

8. What are the functions of the organs of digestion?

9. What is reproductive system? What are the reproductive organs? What

functions have they got?

The anatomy and physiology of the cattle

Cattle are raised as livestock for meat (beef and veal), as dairy animals for milk and other dairy products, and as draft animals (pulling carts, plows and the like). Other products include leather and dung for manure or fuel. In some countries such, as India, cattle are sacred. It is estimated that there are 1.3 billion cattle in the world today.

Cattle have one stomach with four compartments. They are rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum, with the rumen being the largest compartment. The reticulum, the smallest compartment, is known as the “honey comb”. Cattle sometimes consume metal objects which are deposited in the reticulum and irrigation from the metal objects causing hardware disease. The omasum’s main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The omasum is known as the “many plies”. The abomasums is like the human stomach; this is why it is known as the “true stomach”.

Cattle are ruminants. They have a digestive system that allows use of otherwise indigestible foods by repeatedly regurgitating and rechewing them as “cud”. The cud is then reswallowed and further digested by specialized microorganismus in the rumen. These microbes are primarily responsible for decomposing cellulose and other carbohydrates into volatile fatty acids that cattle use as their primary metabolic fuel. The microbes inside the rumen are also able to synthesizeamino acids from nonprotein nitrogenous sources, such as urea and ammonia. As these microbes reproduce in the rumen, older generations die and their carcasses continue on through the digestive tract. These carcasses are then partially digested by the cattle, allowing them to gain a high quality protein source. These features allow cattle to thrive on grasses and other vegetation. The gestation period for a cow is nine months. A newborn calf weighs 25–45 kg (55 to 99 lb). Breeding stock usually lives to about 15 years (occasionally as much as 25 years). (from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

Vocabulary

cattle pl. ['kætl] крупный рогатый скот

stomach ['stΛmək] желудок

compartment [kəm'pa:pmənt] отдел, отделение

rumen ['ru:men] рубец, первый отдел преджелудка

reticulum [ri'tikjuləm] сетка, второй отдел преджелудка

omasum [ɒ'mei∫əm] книжка, третий отдел преджелудка

abomasum [æbɒ 'mei∫əm] сычуг, четвертый отдел преджелудка

hardware [`ha:dwεə] металические изделия

digestible [dai'dʒestəbl] легко усваиваемый

ruminant ['ru:minənt] жвачный, жвачное животное

digestive [dai′dʒestiv] пищеварительный

carbo-hydrate ['ka:bəu'haidreit] углевод

nitrogenous [nai'trɒdʒinəs] азотный, азотистый

urea ['ju:əriə] мочевина

ammonia ['əməunjə] аммиак

carcass ['ka:kəs] туша, тело

gestation [dʒes'tei∫n] беременность

stock [stɒk] порода племя

Упражнение 1. Ответьте на вопросы.

1. What are cattle raised for?

2. What organs form the digestive system?

3. What are the functions of the organs of digestion?

4. Are cattle ruminants?

5. How many years does breeding stock live?

Упражнение 2. Переведите предложения с русского языка на английский язык.

1. На передней поверхности головы любое домашнее животное име-

ет лобную, лицевую и носовую области.

2. На боковой поверхности домашнее животное имеет височную,

ушную, глазную, щечную области и область околоушной железы.

3. Лицевой отдел формирует две полости: носовую и ротовую.

4. В ротовую полость входит комплекс органов: губы, щеки, язык,

десны, твердое и мягкое небо.

5. К пищеварительной системе относятся полость рта, глотка, пище-

вод, желудок, тонкая кишка с печенью и поджелудочной железой и толстая

кишка.

6. Ротовая полость состоит из губ, языка, твердого и мягкого неба.

7. В брюшной полости расположены пищевод, желудок, тонкий ки-

шечник, печень и поджелудочная железа. Тонкий кишечник состоит из

трех отрезков: двенадцатиперстной, тощей и подвздошной кишок. В соста-

ве толстого кишечника также есть три отрезка – слепая, ободочная и пря-

мая кишки.

8. Органы дыхания состоят из носовой полости, глотки, гортани,

трахеи, бронхиального дерева, легких. Органы респираторной (дыхатель-

ной) моторики состоят из грудной клетка с мышечным аппаратом и диа-

фрагмой.

9. Основной орган дыхания – легкие (правое и левое).

10. Нервную систему подразделяют на центральную и периферическую.

11. К центральной нервной системе относят спинной и головной мозг.

12. В настоящее время выделяют еще метасимнатическую, или ки-

шечную, нервную систему.

13. Мочеполовой аппарат объединяет две системы органов: мочевые

и половые. Мочевыделительный аппарат участвует в обмене веществ орга-

низма.

14. Мочевыделительный аппарат включает в себя мочевыводящие

пути, мочевой пузырь, мочеиспускательный канал.

15. Половой аппарат предназначен для воспроизводства потомства.

16. Выводящие пути у самок представлены яйцеводами, маткой, вла-

галищем, мочеполовым преддверием.

17. У самцов выводящие пути представлены придатком, семяпрово-

дом, мочеполовым каналом

АРТИКЛИ (повторение)

Артикли в английском языке — это определители имен существительных, они определяют, имеется ли в виду какой-то конкретный предмет или просто один из многих.

Соответственно, есть два артикля:

• неопределенный «a» (или «an» перед словом, начинающимся на гласную),
• определенный «the».

Когда-то давно это были полноценные слова one (один) и that (этот), но со временем они сократились, однако смысл их остался примерно прежним.

Неопределенный артикль «a/an»

Используется только с исчисляемыми существительным в единственном числе (ведь в прошлом он был «one»), когда речь идет о чем-то неконкретном, неуникальном. Например, a bank — это просто банк, любой, an envelope — какой-нибудь конверт.

Определенный артикль «the»

Используется перед существительными в единственном и множественном числе, когда речь идет о чем-то определенном, конкретном.

Иными словами, если перед существительным можно добавить «какой-то», то будет неопределенный артикль, а если подойдет «тот самый \ те самые», то определенный.

Определенный артикль употребляется также с существительными, которые обозначают:

1.        Нечто уникальное, существующее в единственном экземпляре

the Sun — солнце,

the Columbia river — река Колумбия.

(об артикле перед именами собственными см. ниже)

2.        Периоды (отрезки) времени

in the morning — утром,

in the past — в прошлом.

3.        Перед прилагательными в превосходной степени

the biggest mall in Moscow — самый большой торговый центр в Москве.

Артикль довольно сильно может изменить значение всего предложения. Например:

I met a girl yesterday. — Я встретил девушку на улице (просто шел и увидел какую-то девушку).

I met the girl yesterday. — Я встретил вчера девушку (увидел ТУ САМУЮ девушку, напр. любовь всей жизни).

Нулевые артикли в английском языке

В некоторых случаях артикль вообще не употребляется перед существительным, например:

1. Имеется ввиду что-то очень обобщенное

Crime and punishement — преступление (в общем) и наказание (вообще)

Life is strange — жизнь — странная (жизнь вообще)

2. Перед названиями дней недели, месяцев, времен года

See you on Monday

August is the last month in summer

3. Перед словами, обозначающими прием пищи

let’s have breasfast — давай позавтракаем

lunch is ready — обед готов

Артикль перед именами собственными

Трудности с артиклем возникают, когда мы сталкиваемся с вопросом употребления артиклей перед именами собственными. Вы наверняка замечали, что, к примеру, перед некоторыми географическими названиями нет артикля, а перед другими ставится the. Рассмотрим сначала, когда артикли перед собственными именами не нужны

Когда артикль НЕ ставится перед именем собственным

Перед именами собственными артикли в большинстве случаев не употребляются. Имя собственное обозначает определенное лицо или предмет, это понятно и без артикля, поэтому обычно случаев артикль не нужен.

Вот примеры таких случаев:

1. Перед именами:

Jonh, Misha Sidorov, Lewis.

2. Перед именами с формой обращения или званием, степень и проч.:

General Pupkin, Professor Pavlov, Mr. White.

3. Перед нарицательными именами, которые служат обращением (они рассматриваются как имя собственное):

How are you doing, sergeant? — Как дела, сержант?

How can I help you, professor? — Чем могу вам помочь профессор?

Officer, I heed your help! — Офицер, мне нужна ваша помощь!

Примечание: слово officer является общепринятым обращением к полицейскому, независимо от его звания, на русский язык его не всегда правильно переводить как «офицер».

Перед названиями членов семей, если их употребляют члены той же семьи. В таких случаях слова father, mother, sister и т.д. используются практически как имена собственные.

Let’s see what mom says — Посмотрим, что скажет мама.

I’ve got to ask father about it — Я должен спросить об этом у отца.

Примечание: слово «мама» в США пишут mom, а в Великобритании — mum, реже — mam.

Когда перед именем собственным артикль нужен

Есть случаи, когда перед именами собственными ставится артикль the. Не всегда в них прослеживается закономерность, вот некоторые типичные случаи:

1. Перед фамилиями во множественном числе в значении «семья такая-то»:

The Whites live in Albuquerque — Уайты (семья Уайтов) живет в Альбукерке.

Have you invited the Petrovs? — Вы пригласили Петровых (семью Петровых)?

2. Перед некоторыми географическими названиями.

Это довольно запутанный момент, поскольку в употреблении артикля перед топонимами где-то есть закономерности, где-то нет, а где-то возможно и так и эдак. Например, на картах перед названиями никогда не пишут артикли, чтобы сэкономить место.

Английские артикли в устойчивых выражениях

Есть целый ряд устойчивых выражений, в которых употребляется определенный или неопределенный артикль.

The anatomy of domestic animals

Anatomy is the branch which deals with the form and structure of the principal domestic animals. To understand the structure of the organism in light of the connection between form and function, anatomy uses the data of physiology. Two chief methods of study are employed – systematic and topographic. In the former the body is regarded as consisting of systems of organs or apparatus which are similar in origin and structure and are associated in the performance of certain functions. The approach of systematic anatomy is to divide the organism artificially into parts using the analytical method. The divisions of systematic anatomy are:

1) Osteology (Osteologia), the description of the skeleton;

2) Arthrology (Arlhrologia), the description of the joints;

3) Myology (Myologia); the description of the muscles and accessory structures;

4) Splanchnology (Splanchnologia), the description of the viscera. It includes the following subdivisions:

4.1) Digestive system (Apparatus digestorius);

4.2) Respiratory system (Apparatus respiratorius);

4.3) Urogenital system (Apparatus urogenitalis):

a) urinary organs (Organa uropoetica),

b) genital organs (Organa genitalia);

5) Angiology, the description of the organs of circulation;

6) Neurology, the description of the Nervous system;

7) Aesthesiology, the description of the sense organs and common integument.

Besides systematic anatomy there is topographic anatomy which studies the spatial relationships of the organs in the different body regions. The term topographic anatomy designates the methods by which the relative positions of the various parts of the body are accurately determined. It presupposes a fair knowledge of systematic anatomy. The consideration of anatomical facts in their relation to surgery, physical diagnosis, and other practical branches is termed applied anatomy. As animal is a part of nature, anatomy, the science studding animal`s structure, is part of biology. Animal body is the complex of living matter. The structure of living matter comprises not only the form but the function, not only the morphological but the functional peculiarities of the organism. Anatomy that studies the normal healthy organism is called normal anatomy,

as distinct from pathological or morbid anatomy, which is concerned with the study of the sick organism and the morbid changes in its organs.

Anatomy is also related closely to histology, the science of tissues, particularly to the branch of histology known as microscopic anatomy. Histology and cytology, the science of the cell, are considered independent branches of science. With the invention of the electron microscope, a new science, cytochemistry, was born at the junction of cytology and chemistry. As a result the structure of the animal organism is now studied at different levels: 1) at the level of systems and organs – macroscopic anatomy, micro-macroscopic anatomy, microscopic anatomy; 2) at the level of tissues – histology; 3) at the cellular level – cytology; 4) at the molecular level.

Thus, anatomy and histology are currently divided according to level and technique of examination. Anatomy, histology, cytology and embryology constitute the general science of the form, structure and development of the organism which is called morphology.

Vocabulary

osteology ["ɒsti′ɒləʤi] остеология

skeleton [′skələtɒn] скелет

arthrology [a:θ′rɒlədʒi] артрология

joint [′dɒint] сустав

myology [mai′ɒlədʒi] миология

accessory structures [æk′səsəri ′strΛkt∫əz] вспомогательныеструктуры

splanchnology ["splæηk′nɒlədʒi] учение о внутренностях

viscera pl. лат [′visərə] внутренности (кишки)

digestive [di′dʒestiv] пищеварительный

respiratory [ris′paiərətəri] дыхательный

urogenital ["juərɒ′dʒenitəl] мочеполовой

urinary [juə′rinəri] мочевой

genital [′dʒenitəl] половой

angiology ["ændʒi′ɒlədʒi] ангиология

circulation ["sə:kju′lei∫n] циркуляция (крови)

neurology [nju′rɒlədʒi] неврология

nervous [′nə:vəs] нервный

aesthesiology [i:s′θezi′ɒlədʒi] эстезиология

sense organs [′sens′ɒ:gəns] органы чувств

integument [in′tegjumənt] кожа, наружный покров

surgery [′sə: dʒəri] хирургия

applied [ə′plaid] прикладной

morbid [′mɒ:bid] патологический

tissue [′ti∫u:] ткань

cell [sel] клетка

cellular [′seljulə] клеточный

Упражнение 1. Ответьте на вопросы.

1. What is anatomy?

2. What does anatomy deal with?

3. What does anatomy use to understand the structure of the organism?

4. What sciences is anatomy connected with?

5. What are the chief methods of study?

6. How many parts does the systematic anatomy consist of?

7. What is physiology?

8. What is histology?

9. What is embryology?

10. What is osteology?

11. How is arthrology termed in Latin?

12. What is myology?

13. What is the Latin for splanchnology?

14. What subdivisions does splanchnology include?

15. What is the Latin term for urogenital system?

16. What organs does it include?

17. What is angiology?

18. What is neurology?

19. What does aesthesiology describe?

20. What does topographic anatomy study?

21. What is applied anatomy?

22. What is normal anatomy?

23. What is pathological anatomy?

24. What is microscopic anatomy?

25. How many levels is the animal organism studied at? What are they?

26. What is morphology?

АРТИКЛИ (повторение)

Упражнение 1. Поставьте артикли  a или an.

1. … elephant   2. … English dictionary   3. … butterfly   4. … German car    5. … Italian bag 6. … American college   7. … Russian city   8. … French designer   9. … Indian river   10. … egg   11. … notebook   12. … elegant lady   13. … ice-cream   14. … Japanese phone.

Упражнение 2. Поставьте артикли a/an или the там, где необходимо.

1. I’d like … chicken sandwich and … glass of … mineral water. (Я бы хотел сэндвич с курицей и стакан минеральной воды.)
2. Would you like … banana or … strawberries? (Ты хочешь банан или клубнику?)
3. She always has … apple, … toast and … cup of … coffee for … breakfast. (Она всегда съедает яблоко, тост и пьет чашку кофе на завтрак.)
4. The fly is on … ceiling in … kitchen. (Муха – на потолке на кухне.)
5. My mother is … accountant and my father is … lawyer. They work in … same company in … centre of … our town. (Моя мама – бухгалтер, а папа – юрист. Они работают в одной компании в центре нашего города.)
6. How much are … her Italian lessons? – Ten dollars … hour. (Сколько стоят ее занятия по итальянскому языку? – Десять долларов в час.)
7. Where are … dogs? – They are in … garden. (Где собаки? – Они в саду.)
8. … cats like eating … fish.  … cows like eating … grass.  … birds like eating … insects. (Кошки любят есть рыбу. Коровы любят есть траву. Птицы любят есть насекомых.)
9. My favourite subjects are … chemistry and … biology. (Мои любимые предметы – химия и биология.)
10. There is … parrot in … cage. And there are … pieces of … fruit in it. (В клетке попугай. И в ней есть кусочки фруктов.)
11. My granny lives in … small village in … country. (Моя бабушка живет в маленькой деревушке в сельской местности.)
12. Your baby shouldn’t sit in … sun on … hot day. (Вашему малышу не следует сидеть на солнце в жаркий день.)
13. Please open … book.  … exercise is on … page 68. (Пожалуйста, откройте книгу. Упражнение находится на странице 68.)
14. Ann has been looking for … job for … long time. (Аня ищет работу долгое время.)
15. What’s … matter? - I missed … 6 o’clock train. (Что случилось? – Я не успел на 6-часовой поезд.)
16. Do you like … vegetables? (Ты любишь овощи?)
17. … mother has got … terrible headache today. (У мамы сегодня ужасная головная боль.)
18. There were … tears in … her eyes. (В ее глазах были слезы.)
19. She is … very nice woman but her sons are … bad boys. (Она очень хорошая женщина, но ее сыновья – плохие парни.)
20. Look at … woman. She is … neighbor I told you about. (Посмотри на женщину. Это соседка, о которой я тебе говорил.)

Упражнение 3. Поставьте артикли a/an или the там, где необходимо.

1. Yesterday I bought … pair of … shoes. Unfortunately … shoes are too tight. (Вчера я купила пару туфель. К сожалению, туфли слишком узкие.)
2. We had … dinner in … restaurant … last night. – What is … name of … restaurant? (Вчера ночью мы ужинали в ресторане. – Как называется ресторан?)
3. Tony has two children: … boy and … girl. They are … twins.  … girl is in … France now. (У Тони двое детей: мальчик и девочка. Они близнецы. Девочка находится сейчас во Франции.)
4. Would you like another piece of … cake? – No, … cake is too fat for me. (Хотите еще один кусок торта? – Нет, для меня торт слишком жирный.)
5. His office is on … Floor 5. And I live on … tenth floor. (Его офис находится на этаже 5. А я живу на десятом этаже.)
6. Little Mike leaves for … school very early because … school is quite far from … his home. (Маленький Майк уходит в школу очень рано, потому что школа довольно далеко от его дома.)
7. Lara saw … letter under … door. She read … letter and started crying. (Лара увидела под дверью письмо. Она прочитала письмо и начала плакать.)
8. Did you enjoy … food at … party … last Friday? (Тебе понравилась еда на вечере в прошлую пятницу?)
9. Roger is … scientist, he works for … government. (Роджер – ученый, он работает на правительство.)
10. We go to … gym twice … week. (Мы ходим в спортзал дважды в неделю.)

1. He has been in … hospital for … month. (Он лежит в больнице в течение месяца.)
2. … English are very fond of … gardening. (Англичане очень увлекаются садоводством.)
3. I’ve tried to learn … Japanese many times. (Я пробовал изучать японский язык много раз.)
4. She is … famous actress and she often appears on … TV. (Она – известная актриса и часто появляется на телевидении.)
5. It’s such … original idea! Besides you’ve got … good sense of humour. (Это такая оригинальная идея! Кроме того, у тебя хорошее чувство юмора.)
6. On … rainy day … castle looks like … prison. (В дождливый день замок выглядит как тюрьма.)

Упражнение 5. Поставьте артикли с именами собственными, если это необходимо.

1. … Cairo is … capital of … Egypt. (Каир – столица Египта.)
2. It was so picturesque in … Crimea … last summer. (В Крыму было так живописно прошлым летом.)
3. ... London stands on … Thames. (Лондон стоит на Темзе.)
4. I had … my holiday in … northern Italy … last year but I’m going to cross … Atlantic ocean and visit … USA … next year. (Я провел отпуск в северной Италии в прошлом году, но в следующем году я собираюсь пересечь Атлантический океан и посетить США.)
5. … Moon moves round … Earth. (Луна движется вокруг Земли.)
6. … Great Patriotic war started in 1941. (Великая Отечественная война началась в 1941 году.)
7. … Volga is … longest river in … Russia. (Волга – самая длинная река в России.)
8. … Ukraine and … Turkey are separated by … Black sea. (Украину и Турцию разделяет Черное море.)
9. My friend usually goes to … Alps in … spring by … plane. (Мой друг обычно ездит в Альпы весной на самолете.)
10. … Urals are lower than … Caucasus. (Уральские горы ниже Кавказа.)
11. … Great Britain is situated on … two large islands. (Великобритания расположена на двух больших островах.)
12. … Christmas and … Easter are my favourite holidays. (Рождество и Пасха – мои любимые праздники.)
13. It takes about … hour to get from … Domodedovo airport to … Lenin street. (Требуется около часа, чтобы добраться от аэропорта Домодедово до улицы Ленина.)
14. What’s … weather like today in … Australia? (Какая сегодня погода в Австралии?)
15. … Colorado river flows through … Grand Canyon. (Река Колорадо протекает через Большой Каньон.)
16. My English friend took me to see … National gallery, … Houses of … Parliament and … Tower bridge. (Мой английский друг взял меня посмотреть Национальную галерею, Здания Парламента и Тауэрский мост.)
17. … Statue of … Liberty was … present from … French people. (Статуя свободы была подарком от французского народа.)
18. … Galaxy where we live is called … Milky Way. (Галактика, в которой мы живем, называется Млечным путем.)

The anatomy and physiology of the cat

Mouth. Cats have highly specialized teeth for the killing of prey and the tearing of meat: the premolar and first molar teeth. They present in canids, and are highly developed in felines. The cat's tongue has sharp spines, or papillae, useful for retaining and ripping flesh from a carcass. Cats use a variety of vocalizations for communication, including meowing, purring, hissing, growling, squeaking, chirping, clicking, and grunting. Their types of body language: position of ears and tail, relaxation of whole body, kneading of paws, all are indicators of mood.

Ears. Thirty-two individual muscles in each ear allow for a manner of directional hearing: a cat can move each ear independently of the other. Because of this mobility, a cat can move its body in one direction and point its ears in another direction. Most cats have straight ears pointing upward. When angry or frightened, a cat will lay back its ears, to accompany the growling or hissing sounds it makes. Cats also turn their ears back when they are playing, or to listen to a sound coming from behind them.

Legs. Cats, like dogs, are digitigrades. They walk directly on their toes, with the bones of their feet making up the lower part of the visible leg. Cats are capable of walking very precisely, because like all felines they directly register; that is, they place each hind paw (almost) directly in the print of the corresponding forepaw, minimizing noise and visible tracks. This also provides sure footing for their hind paws when they navigate rough terrain.

Claws. Cats have protractable claws. In their normal, relaxed position the claws are sheathed with the skin and fur around the toe pads. This keeps the claws sharp by preventing wear from contact with the ground and allows the silent stalking of prey. The claws on the forefeet are typically sharper than those on the hind feet. Most cats have five claws on their front paws, and four or five on their rear paws. However, domestic and feral are prone to polydactylyism, and may have six or seven toes. The fifth front claw is proximal to the other claws.

Skin. Cats possess rather loose skin; this allows them to turn and confront a predator or another cat in a fight, even when it has a grip on them. The particularly loose skin at the back of the neck is known as the scruff, and is the area by which a mother cat grips her kittens to carry them.

Skeleton. Cats have 7 cervical vertebrae, 13 thoracic vertebrae, 7 lumbar vertebrae, 3 sacral vertebrae, and 22 or 23 caudal vertebrae. The extra lumbar and thoracic vertebrae account for the cat's enhanced spinal mobility and flexibility, compared with humans. The caudal vertebrae form the tail, used by the cat as a counterbalance to the body during quick movements. Cats also have free-floating clavicle bones, which allow them to pass their body through any space into which they can fit their heads.

Head. The masseter is a great, powerful, and very thick muscle covered by a tough, shining fascia lying ventral to the zygomatic arch, which is its origin. It inserts into the posterior half of the lateral surface of the mandible. Its action is the elevation of the mandible (closing of the jaw).

The temporalis is a great mass of mandibular muscle, and is also covered by a tough and shiny fascia. It lies dorsal to the zygomatic arch and fills the temporal fossa of the skull. It arises from the side of the skull and inserts into the coronoid process of the mandible. It too, elevates the jaw. The two main integumentary muscles of a cat are the platysma and the cutaneous maximus. The cutaneous maximus covers the dorsal region of the cat and allows it to shake its skin. The platysma covers the neck and allows the cat to stretch the skin over the pectoralis major and deltoid muscles.

Neck and Back. The rhomboideus is a thick, large muscle below the trapezius muscles. It extends from the vertebral border of the scapula to the mid-dorsal line. Origin, neural spines of the first four thoracic vertebrae, insertion, vertebral border of the scapula, action, draws the scapula to the dorsal.

Splenius is the most superficial of all the deep muscles. It is a thin, broad sheet of muscle underneath the clavotrapezius and deflecting it. It is crossed also by the rhomboideus capitis. Its origin is the mid-dorsal line of the neck and fasica. The insertion is the superior nuchal line and atlas. It raises or turns the head.

Serratus ventralis is exposed by cutting the wing-like latissimus dorsi. The origin is from the first nine or ten ribs, and from part of the cervical vertebrae. The insertion is the vertebral border of the scapula. It draws scapula forward, backward and against the body.

Serratus Dorsalis is medial to both the scapula and the Serratus Ventralis. Origin, apoeurosis following the length of the mid-dorsal line, insertion, dorsal portion of the last ribs, action, draws ribs cranial. The intercostals are a set of muscles sandwiched between the ribs. They interconnect ribs, and are therefore the primary respiratory skeletal muscles. They are divided into the external and the internal subscapularis. The origin and insertion are in the ribs. The intercostals pull the ribs backwards or forwards.

Pectoantebrachialis muscle is just one-half inch wide, and is the most superficial in the pectoral muscles. Origin, manubrium of the sternum, insertion, in a flat tendon on the fascia of the proximal end of the ulna, action, draws the arm towards the chest.

The pectoralis major, also called, pectoralis superficialis, is a broad triangular portion of the pectoralis muscle which is immediately below the pectoantebrachialis. It is actually smaller than the pectoralis minor muscle. Origin, sternum and median ventral raphe, insertion, humerus, action, draws the arm towards the chest. The pectoralis minor muscle is larger than the pectoralis major. However, most of its anterior border is covered by the pectoralis major. Origin, ribs 3–5, insertion, coracoid process of scapula, Action, tipping of the scapula, elevation of ribs 3–5.

The most posterior, flat, thin, and long strip of pectoral muscle is the xiphihumeralis. It is a band of parallel fibers that is not found in humans, but in felines. Its origin is the xiphoid process of the sternum, the insertion is the humerus.

Trapezius covers the back, and the neck. They pull the scapula toward the mid dorsal line, anteriorly, and posteriorly.

Clavotrapezius, the most anterior of the trapezius muscles, is also the largest. Its fibers run obliquely to the ventral surface. Origin, superior nuchal line and median dorsal line, insertion, clavicle, action, draws the clavicle dorsal and towards the head.

Acromiotrapezius is the middle trapezius muscle. It covers the dorsal and lateral surfaces of the scapula. Origin, neural spines of the cervical vertebrae, insertion, in the metacromion process and fascia of clavotrapezius, action, draws the scapula to the dorsal, and holds the two scapulas together.

Spinotrapezius, also called thoracic trapezius, is the most posterior of the three. It is triangular shaped. Origin, neural spines of the thoracic vertebra, insertion, scapular fascia, action, draws the scapula to the dorsal and caudal regions. (from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

Vocabulary

premolar [pri:'məulə] премоляр, малый коренной зуб

molar ['məulə] моляр, большой коренной зуб

canid ['kænid] клык

feline ['fi:lain] животное из семейства кошачьих, кошачий

spine ['spain] позвоночник, позвоночный столб

digitigrade ["didʒiti'greit] пальчатый, имеющий развитые пальцы

paw [pɒ:] лапа

forepaw ['fɒ:pɒ:] передняя лапа

to sheathe [∫i:d] заключать в оболочку, защищать

toe [təu] палец стопы

pad [pæd] подушечка лапы

forefoot ['fɒ:fut] передний отдел стопы, лапа

hind feet [haind fi:t] задние ступни

feral ['fiərəl] дикий, неприрученный

polydactylyism ["pɒli'dæktilizm] полидактилия, многопалость

scruff [skrΛf] задняя часть шеи, выя

cervical vertebra [sə:'vaikəl 'və: tibrə] шейный позвонок

thoracic v [θɒ:'ræsik] грудной позвонок

sacral v ['seikrəl] крестцовый позвонок

caudal v. ['kɒ:dəl] хвостовой позвонок

extra lumbar v ['ekstrə'lΛmbə] внепоясничный позвонок

spinal ['spainl] позвоночный, спинальный

flexibility [fleksi'biliti] гибкость

clavicle bone ['klævikl 'bɒun] ключичная кость

masseter [mæ'sətə] жевательная мышца

fascia ['fei∫ə] фасция

ventral ['ventrəl] вентральный, брюшной

zygomatic arch [zaigəu'mætik a:t∫] скуловая дуга

lateral surface ['lætərəl 'sə:fis] латеральная поверхность

mandible ['mændibl] нижнечелюстной

mandibular muscle [mæn'dibj:ulə 'mΛsl] нижнечелюстная мышца

temporal fossa ['tempərəl 'fɒsə] височная ямка, висок

coronoid process ['kɒrənɒid'prəuses] венечный отросток (нижней челюсти)

platysma ['plætizmə] подкожная мышца шеи

maximus ['mæksimes] наибольший, большой

dorsal ['dɒ:səl] дорсальный, спинной, тыльный

pectoralis major ['pektərəlis] грудная большая

deltoid muscle ['deltoid 'mΛsl] дельтовидная мышца

rhomboideus ["rəm'bɒidəs] ромбовидный

trapezius ['træpi:zjəs] трапециевидный

mid-dorsal line [mid-dɒ:səl] среднедорсальная линия

superficial ["sju:pə'fi∫əl] поверхностный

deflecting [di'flektiŋ] искривление, изгиб

capitis ['kæpitis] головной, головчатый

insertion [in'sə:∫ən] прикрепление, введение

serratus ['seritəs] зубец, зубчатость, зубчатый

ventralis [ventr'ælis] вентральный, брюшной

atissimus [læ'tisiməs] широчайший

dorsum ['dɒ:səm] спина

intercostal ["intə'kɒstl] межреберный

pectoral ['pektərəl] грудной

tendon ['tendən] сухожилие

triangular [trai'æŋgjulə] трехангулярный, угловой, коленчатый

median ventral raphe ['mi:djən 'ventrəl reif] срединный брюшной шов

anterior border [æn'tiəriə 'bɒ:də] передний край

coracoid process ['kɒrəkɒid 'prəuses] клювовидный отросток (лопатки)

xiphoid process [ksi'fɒid 'prəuses] мечевидный, мечеобразный

superior nuchal line [sju:'piəriə 'nju:kl lain] верхняя выйная линия

median dorsal line ['mi:djən 'dɒsəl lain] средняя дорсальная линия

clavicle dorsal ['klævikl 'dɒsəl] дорсальная ключица

metacromion process ["metə'krəumjen ['prəuses] метакромиальный отросток

thoracic trapezius [θɒ:'ræsik trə'pi:zjəs] грудная кость-трапеция

Упражнение 1. Ответьте на вопросы.

1. Where are the organs of taste?

2. What teeth can you name?

3. What is the skeleton composed of?

4. How many bones and vertebrae of the cat body do you know?

5. What are the parts of the leg?

6. What is the normal body temperature of a cat?

7. How many muscles do the cats have? What muscles can you name?

8. What are the ears for?

9. What are the claws for?

10. How many hours a day can a cat sleep?

The anatomy and physiology of the dog

External anatomy is concerned with the study of such organs as muzzle, dewlap (throat, neck skin), shoulder, elbow, forefeet, croup, leg (thigh and hip), hock, hind feet, withers, stifle, paws, tail.

Physical characteristics. Like most predatory mammals, the dog has powerful muscles, a cardiovascular system that supports both sprinting and endurance, and teeth for catching, holding, and tearing. The dog's ancestral skeleton provides the ability to run and leap. Their legs are designed to propel them forward rapidly, leaping as necessary, to chase and overcome prey. Consequently, they have small, tight feet, walking on their toes; their rear legs are fairly rigid and sturdy; the front legs are loose and flexible, with only muscle attaching them to the torso. Dogs have disconnected shoulder bones that allow a greater stride length for running and leaping. They walk on four toes, front and back, and have vestigial dewclaws (dog thumbs) on their front legs and sometimes on their rear legs.

Sight. Like most mammals, dogs are dichromats and have color vision equivalent to red-green color blindness in humans. Different breeds of dogs have different eye shapes and dimensions, and they also have different retina configurations. Dogs with long noses have a “visual streak” which runs across the width of the retina and gives them a very wide field of excellent vision, while those with short noses have an “area centralis” – a central patch with up to three times the density of nerve endings as the visual streak – giving them detailed sight much more like a human's. Some breeds have a field of vision up to 270°, although broad-headed breeds with short noses have a much narrower field of vision, as low as 180°.

Hearing. The frequency range of dog hearing is approximately 40 Hz to 60,000 Hz. Dogs detect sounds as low as the 16 to 20 Hz frequency range and above 45 kHz, and in addition have a degree of ear mobility that helps them to rapidly pinpoint the exact location of a sound. Eighteen or more muscles can tilt, rotate and raise or lower a dog's ear. Additionally, a dog can identify a sound's location much faster than a human can, as well as hear sounds up to four times the distance that humans are able to.

Smell. Dogs have nearly 220 million smell-sensitive cells over an area about the size of a pocket handkerchief. Dogs can sense odours at concentrations nearly 100 million times lower than humans can. The percentage of the dog's brain that is devoted to analyzing smells is actually 40 times larger than that of a human. Some dog breeds have been selectively bred for excellence in detecting scents, even compared to their canine brethren.

Modern dog breeds exhibit a diverse array of fur coats, including dogs without fur. Dog coats vary in texture, color, and markings, and a specialized vocabulary has evolved to describe each characteristic.

Tail. There are many different shapes for dog tails: straight, straight up, sickle, curled, cork-screw. In some breeds, the tail is traditionally docked to avoid injuries. It can happen that some puppies are born with a short tail or no tail in some breeds. (from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

Vocabulary

muzzle [mΛzl] морда

dewlap ['dju:læp] подгрудок

croup [kru:p] зад, круп

hip [hip] бедро, бок

hock [hɒk] поджилки, коленное сухожилие

wither ['wiðə] холка

stifle [staifl] коленный сустав, коленная чашка

to sprint [sprint] бежать на короткую дистанцию спринтовать

endurance [in'dju:ərəns] выносливость

ancestral [æn'sestrəl] наследственный, родовой

leap; to leap [li:p] прыжок, скачок; прыгать

to chase ['t∫eis] преследовать, гнаться

to prey [prei] охотиться, ловить

torso ['tɒ:səu] туловище

vestigial [ves'tidʒiəl] остаточный, исчезающий

dewclaw ['dju:kləu:] рудиментарный отросток в виде пальца на лапе

thumb [ӨΛm] большой палец

dichromatic ["daikrəu'mætik] двухцветный

configuration [kən"figju'rei∫ən] форма, конфигурация

streak [stri:k] жилка, прожилка

hearing ['hiəriŋ] слух

odour ['əudə] запах

scent [sent] след, запах

canine ['keinain] собачий

fur [fə:] шерсть, шкура

tail [teil] хвост

Упражнение 1. Ответьте на вопросы.

1. How many chief parts of the dog body do you know?

2. What are the teeth for?

3. What is the skeleton composed of?

4. What are the legs for?

5. What are the organs of special sense?

6. What are the organs of sense for?

7. What shapes of dog tail do you know?

ПРЕДЛОГИ (повторение)

Предлогами называют служебные слова, которые показывают связь (отношение) существительных или местоимений с другими словами:

I need answer her at 10 o'clock - мне нужно ответить ей в 10 часов.

He began by beheading the king – Он начал с обезглавливания короля

They came from Dol Guldur – Они пришли из Дол Гулдура.

Предлоги являясь служебной частью речи, не несут никакой самостоятельной функции и не являются членами предложения. В русском языке помимо предлогов, используются падежные окончания, но как мы знаем, английский язык практически не имеет падежных окончаний.

По сути, употребление предлогов в английском языке – самый главный способ выражения отношения существительного к другим словам в предложении.

Предлоги выражают:

1) Отношения в пространстве:

On the wall – на стене

In the garden – в саду

2) Пространство времени:

In June – в июле

At 10 o’clock – в 10 часов

3) Различные отвлечённые значения: причины, цели и т.д:

They prayed for her life - Они молились за её жизнь.

Виды предлогов

 Предлоги можно классифицировать:

1) по форме образования на:

a) Простые

Простые предлоги в английском языке, состоят лишь из одного корня:

at, in, for, on, with

b) Производные

Предлоги, которые имеют в своём составе суффиксы и префиксы

across, below, behind, along

c) Сложные

Это такие предлоги, в составе которых имеется несколько корней

Inside, without, outside, within

d) Составные

Такие предлоги состоят из нескольких слов

Because of, in accordance with, in front of

2) в зависимости от их значения на предлоги:

·         Места (Place) – in, on, below, under, near, in front of

·         Направления (Direction) – to, from, out of, into, in

·         Времени (time) – after, before, at

·         Отвлечённые отношения (abstract relations) – by, with, because of, with a view to

В английском языке есть категория предлогов, которые выполняют только грамматическую функцию, т.е. в сочетании с существительным или местоимением они передают отношения (It is new roof of our house - это новая крыша (чего?) нашего дома). В русском языке такое отношение передаётся косвенными падежами без предлогов.

Вот эти предлоги:

Родительный падеж (кого? чего?) - of

1) Предлог of, показывающий принадлежность предмета или лица к чему-то. Передаёт отношение между двумя существительными. В таком значении сочетание предлога of с существительным или местоимением эквивалентно родительному падежу в русском языке:

The door of the car was broken – Дверь (чего?) автомобиля была поломана

Our name will be written at the first pages of the books – Наши имена будут вписаны на первые страницы (чего?) книг

Дательный падеж (кому? чему?) - to

2) Предлог to, стоящий перед существительным и передающий отношение, в котором обозначается объект (лицо), к которому обращено действие. В русском языке данное отношение выражается дательным падежом (кому? чему?)

She explained our plan to the manager – Она объяснила наш план (кому?) менеджеру

He showed the note to Jane - Он показал записку (кому?) Джейн.

Творительный падеж – (кем? чем?) - with

3) Предлог by, если он находится после глагола в форме страдательного залога перед сущ-ым, которое обозначает лицо и предмет. Предлог by в данном случае эквивалентен отношению, которое в русском языке обозначается творительным падежом 

The room was cleaned by maid – Комната была убрана (кем?) горничной

Творительный падеж (кем? чем?) - with

4) Предлог with, находясь перед сущест-ым, которое обозначает  предмет или орудие действия с помощью которого совершается действие. В этом значении предлог with эквивалентен русскому существительному или местоимению в творительном падеже:

His wound was treated with hydrogen peroxide – Рана была обработана (чем?) перекисью водорода.

• Большинство предлогов могут иметь не одно, а несколько значений (более подробно значения каждого из предлогов будут рассмотрены в соответствующих разделах). Например, предлог at – может обозначать:

1) место со значением у, около

I saw your bag at window – Я видел твою сумку у окна

2) время со значением в, при указании момента времени

The meeting will be at 9 o’clock -  Собрание состоится в 9 часов

• В английском языке во многих случаях выбор предлога зависит только от слова (глагол, сущест-ое, прилагательное) , которое предшествовало предлогу.

Например, глагол to laugh (смеяться). После него необходим предлог at:

Our enemies will be laugh at us - Наши враги будут смеяться над нами

• В ряде случаев, один определённый глагол может иметь разное значение ,если использовать разные предлоги:

Sara is looking at her cat – Сара смотрит на своего кота

Sara is looking for her cat – Сара ищет своего кота

Saar is looking after her cat – Сара заботится о своём коте

• Предлоги также употребляются в устойчивых сочетаниях : after all – в конце концов, at all – вообще, to the end – до конца

• Между русскими и английскими предлогами нет 100%-ого соответствия. Это значит, что один английский предлог может переводиться на русский различными русскими предлогами:

She will be here in two minutes – она будет здесь через две минуты

We have been living in USA since 2013 – мы живём в США с 2013 года

Our company will make new branches in 1 year – наша компания построит новые отделения за 1 год.

I got a lot of  tips for growing my business in one month – я узнал много советов для роста моего бизнеса за один месяц

• С другой стороны, один русский предлог может соответствовать различным предлогам в английском языке:

I could not pick up the box because something heavy was on it – Я не мог поднять коробку, потому что на ней было что-то тяжёлое

Hey! Why are looking at me? – Эй! Зачем ты смотришь на меня

I really want to go to a trip  - я очень хочу отправиться в путешествие

The great battles were in the south – На юге были великие сражения

• Существуют случаи, когда английский глагол употребляется исключительно с предлогом, хотя этот же глагол в русском языке не требует после себя предлога:

Can you wait for me 5 minutes – можете ли вы подождать меня 5 минут?

Listen to us – послушай нас

• В английском языке присутствуют глаголы, после которых не требуется наличие предлога то время как в русском языке после соответствующего глагола предлог необходим:

We entered the White House – мы вошли в Белый Дом

James followed us – Джеймс последовал за нами

He did not answer all questions – он не ответил ни на один вопрос

Данные правила предлогов в английском языке являются самыми общими и их изучение позволит вам уверенно говорить на с иностранцами.

Место предлога в предложении

1) Предлог всегда стоит перед существительным или местоимением (есть исключения, которые мы рассмотрим далее). Соответственно, если существительное имеет дополнение, то предлог ставится перед этим дополнением:

I am looking at my cat – я смотрю на моего кота

I am looking at my fat cat – я смотрю на моего толстого кота

А вот исключение, о котором говорилось выше: предлог ставится в конец предложения - после глагола, либо при наличии дополнения - после дополнения в следующих случаях:

1) В так называемых косвенных и прямых вопросах. В таких вопросах предлог относится к местоимениям which, who, what, whom или наречию where.  Но также предлог, может стоять перед вопросительным словом:

What did you look for when selecting a girlfriend? – что вы ищете (на что обращаете внимание) когда выбираете подругу?

Who did Monica speak to? -  С кем говорила Моника?

2) В придаточных определительных предложениях. В таких предложениях предлог относится к относительному местоимению. Однако, предлог можно поставить и перед относительным местоимением:

The flat which she lives in is very small (The flat in which she lives is very small) – Квартира, в которой она живёт, очень маленькая

3) В пассивных оборотах (страдательных). В таких оборотах подлежащее соответствует предложному косвенному дополнению параллельного действительного оборота:

The police was sent for - За полицией послали

4) В инфинитивных оборотах:

i don't have photo camera to photograph with - У меня нет фотоаппарата, которым бы я мог фотографировать

Упражнение 1. Поставьте необходимые предлоги в предложения.

about     in      at       with     to        of        for       on

1. My sister will arrive … the station … 9 o’clock … the morning. (Моя сестра прибудет на станцию в 9 часов утра.)
2. Look … that beautiful photo … my baby daughter. (Посмотри на эту красивую фотографию моей малышки дочки.)
3. I’m hungry. What’s … lunch today? (Я голоден. Что на обед сегодня?)
4. This is the highest mountain … the world. (Это самая высокая гора в мире.)
5. What do you usually do … weekends? (Чем ты обычно занят в выходные?)
6. We are going … the party … Saturday. (Мы идем на вечеринку в субботу.)
7. I bought a new pair … sunglasses … the chemist’s. (Я купила новую пару солнечных очков в аптеке.)
8. What do you know … Scotland? (Что ты знаешь о Шотландии?)
9. The postman came … a letter … my Dad. (Почтальон пришел с письмом для папы.)
10. Did you speak … the boss … your salary? (Ты поговорил с боссом по поводу твоей зарплаты?)
11. Sam lives … home … his mother. (Сэм живет дома с мамой.)
12. Can you help me … my drawing? - … course I can. (Ты можешь помочь мне с рисунком? – Конечно, могу.)
13. I met my future husband … a queue … the bus stop. (Я познакомилась со своим будущим мужем в очереди на автобусной остановке.)
14. Justin is … Kristy’s house. (Джастин находится у Кристи дома.)
15. The diagram is … page 76 … the left. (Схема – на странице 76, слева.)

Human and living nature

People have lived on our planet for many years. They lived and live on different continents, in different countries. People depend on their planet, on the sun, on animals and plants around them. People must take care of Earth. Our ecology becomes worse and worse with every new day. Many species of animals and birds are disappearing nowadays. People destruct wildlife, cut down trees to make furniture. They forget that people can’t live without trees and plants, because they fill air with oxygen. And, of course, great problems are population and animals destruction.

The main reason of pollution is rubbish. Most of our rubbish goes to big holes in the ground, called ‘dumps’. But dumps are very dangerous for our life ‘cause they are full of rats, which can carry infections away from dumps. Another way to get rid of rubbish is to burn it. But the fires make poisons, which go into the air and pollute it. But pollution isn’t the only actual problem.

Every day a big number of animals dissapeares. People kill animals for different aims: e.g. people hunt whales for their meat and oil; elephants for their tusks, crocodiles for their leather and so on. And also animals are used for medical experiments. The most wide – speared from such animals are monkeys. Modern life is bad for animals, birds, fish. The air isn’t fresh and the water isn’t pure. They don’t have good meal and facilities for the life. You can find their names in the Red Book.

Of course, people can’t stay indifferent to these problems. There are a lot of special organizations, which try to save our nature. The most known are: The Royal Society for the prevention of cruelty to animals (The RSPCA), the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Greenpeace. The RSPCA tries to protect animals from bad use. It operates big nation campaigns aimed at lost pets, circus animals. The WWF rescued several species of animals, mammals as well as birds. These organization also helped to create more than 250 National parks.

Greenpeace began its work 20 years ago from saving whales. And now Greenpeace is a world-famous organization, which saves plants, animals and people. These organization, want to rescue animals, to help them to survive and to save jungle rain forests, which are in danger of destruction. And they also help animals ‘cause many of them have already gone as they have nowhere to live. Their homes, the trees, have disappeared.

We must save wild animals. And we must find the right way to save land, people and animals. We must take care of nature, because we are part of it.

Vocabulary

rubbish – мусор, отбросы

dumps – свалка

Упражнение 1. Составьте план к тексу.

Упражнение 2. Составьте диалог на тему «What can I personally do to protect animals in today's world»

ПРЕДЛОГИ (повторение)

The difficulties of the vet profession

Veterinarians typically do the following:

• Examine animals to diagnose their health problems
• Diagnose and treat animals for medical conditions
• Treat and dress wounds
• Perform surgery on animals
• Test for and vaccinate against diseases
• Operate medical equipment, such as x-ray machines
• Advise animal owners about general care, medical conditions, and treatments
• Prescribe medication
• Euthanize animals

Veterinarians in private clinical practices treat the injuries and illnesses of pets and other animals with a variety of medical equipment, including surgical tools and x-ray and ultrasound machines. They provide treatment for animals that is similar to the services a physician provides to treat humans.

The following are examples of types of veterinarians:

Equine veterinarians work with horses. In 2012, about 6 percent of private practice veterinarians diagnosed and treated horses.

Food animal veterinarians work with farm animals such as pigs, cattle, and sheep. In 2012, about 8 percent of private practice veterinarians treated food animals. They spend much of their time at farms and ranches treating illnesses and injuries and testing for and vaccinating against disease. They may advise owners or managers about feeding, housing, and general health practices.

Food safety and inspection veterinarians inspect and test livestock and animal products for major animal diseases, provide vaccines to treat animals, enhance animal welfare, conduct research to improve animal health, and enforce government food safety regulations. They design and administer animal and public health programs for the prevention and control of diseases transmissible among animals and between animals and people.

Research veterinarians work in laboratories, conducting clinical research on human and animal health problems. These veterinarians may perform tests on animals to identify the effects of drug therapies, or they may test new surgical techniques. They may also research how to prevent, control, and eliminate food- and animal-borne illnesses and diseases.

Some veterinarians become postsecondary teachers at colleges and universities.

Work Environment: 

Veterinarians held about 70,300 jobs in 2012, of which 74 percent were in the veterinary services industry. Others held positions at colleges or universities; in private industry, such as in medical and research laboratories; and in federal, state, or local government. About 18 percent of veterinarians were self-employed.

Although most veterinarians work in private clinics and hospitals, others travel to farms, work in laboratories or classrooms, or work for the government.

Veterinarians who treat horses or food animals must travel between their offices and farms and ranches. They work outdoors in all kinds of weather and may have to perform surgery, often under unsanitary conditions.

Veterinarians who work in food safety and inspection must travel to farms, slaughterhouses, and food-processing plants.

Veterinarians who conduct research work primarily in offices and laboratories and spend much of their time dealing with people, rather than animals.

Veterinarians’ work can sometimes be emotionally stressful, as they deal with sick animals and the animals’ anxious owners. Also, the workplace can be noisy, as animals make noise when sick or being handled. Working on farms and ranches, in slaughterhouses, or with wildlife can also be physically demanding.

Injuries and Illnesses

When working with animals that are frightened or in pain, veterinarians risk being bitten, kicked, and scratched. In addition, veterinarians working with diseased animals risk being infected by the disease.

Work Schedules

Veterinarians often work long hours. Some work nights or weekends, and they may have to respond to emergencies outside of scheduled work hours. About 1 in 3 veterinarians worked more than 50 hours per week in 2012.

Education and Training: 

Veterinarians must have a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine degree from an accredited veterinary college and a state license.

Education

Veterinarians must complete a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M. or V.M.D.) degree at an accredited college of veterinary medicine.

Although not required, most applicants to veterinary school have a bachelor’s degree. Veterinary medical colleges typically require applicants to have taken many science classes, including biology, chemistry, anatomy, physiology, zoology, microbiology, and animal science. Most programs also require math and humanities and social science courses.

Admission to veterinary programs is very competitive, and fewer than half of all applicants were accepted in 2012.

In veterinary medicine programs, students take courses on normal animal anatomy and physiology, as well as disease prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Most programs include 3 years of classroom, laboratory, and clinical work. Students typically spend the final year of the 4-year program doing clinical rotations in a veterinary medical center or hospital. In veterinary schools today, increasingly, courses include general business management and career development classes, to help new veterinarians learn how to effectively run a practice.

Important Qualities

Compassion. Veterinarians must be compassionate when working with animals and their owners. They must treat animals with kindness and respect, and must be sensitive when dealing with the owners of sick pets.

Decision-making skills. Veterinarians must decide the correct method for treating the injuries and illnesses of animals. Deciding to euthanize a sick animal, for instance, can be difficult.

Interpersonal skills. Strong communication skills are essential for veterinarians, who must be able to discuss their recommendations and explain treatment options to animal owners and give instructions to their staff.

Management skills. Management skills are important for veterinarians who are in charge of running private clinics or laboratories, or directing teams of technicians or inspectors. In these settings, they are responsible for providing direction, delegating work, and overseeing daily operations.

Manual dexterity. Manual dexterity is important for veterinarians, because they must control their hand movements and be precise when treating injuries and performing surgery.

Problem-solving skills. Veterinarians need strong problem-solving skills because they must figure out what is ailing animals. Those who test animals to determine the effects of drug therapies also need excellent diagnostic skills.

Job Outlook: 

Employment of veterinarians is projected to grow 12 percent from 2012 to 2022, about as fast as the average for all occupations.

In private practice, demand for veterinarians will increase as more people are expected to take their pets for visits. Also, veterinary medicine has advanced considerably, and many of the veterinary services offered today are comparable to health care for humans, including cancer treatments and kidney transplants.

There also will be employment growth in fields related to food and animal safety, disease control, and public health. As the population grows, more veterinarians will be needed to inspect the food supply and to ensure animal and human health.

However, due to overall slowing growth of the veterinary services industry, employment gains of veterinarians will be slower than in the past.

Job Prospects

Candidates can expect very strong competition for most veterinarian positions. Job seekers with specializations and prior work experience should have the best job opportunities.

Although veterinary services are growing, the number of new graduates from veterinary schools has increased to roughly 3,000 per year, resulting in greater competition for jobs than in recent years. Additionally, most veterinary graduates are attracted to companion animal care, so there will be fewer job opportunities in that field, as overall growth of the veterinary services industry slows.

Job opportunities in farm animal care will be better, because fewer veterinarians compete to work on large animals. Also, there will be some job opportunities available in the federal government in food safety, animal health, and public health.

Given the training they receive from veterinary school, veterinarians are highly qualified for nontraditional industry positions in fields such as public health, disease control, corporate sales, and population studies. With potentially fewer opportunities in companion animal care, many graduating veterinarians will likely have better job prospects in these areas.

Vocabulary

treat – лечить

dress wounds – перевязывать раны

surgery – операции

еuthanize – усыпить

injuries – травмы

surgical – хирургические

enforce – соблюдение

slaughterhouses – скотобойня

аdmission – прием

compassion – сострадание

manual dexterity – ловкость рук

ailing – больной

Упражнение 1. Ответьте на вопросы.

1. What types of veterinarians do you know?
2. Why the most veterinarians work in private clinics and hospitals?
3. What is dangerous in the vet job?
4. What must the future vet learn ?

Упражнение 2. Составьте монологическое высказывание на тему «My future profession is Vet».

ФУНКЦИИ МОДАЛЬНОГО ГЛАГОЛА USED TO

В английском языке довольно часто используется конструкция «Модальный глагол Used to + инфинитив». Следует заметить, что не все лингвисты называют Used to модальным глаголом, поскольку считают его «пограничным» явлением между модальными и знаменательными глаголами.

Формы модального глагола Used to. Особенность глагола Used to в том, что он употребляется исключительно в форме прошедшего времени и выражает план действия, которое тоже относится к прошлому.

Употребление модального глагола Used to.

Модальная конструкция Used to выражает регулярное повторяющееся действие (привычка, рутина), которое было совершено в прошлом. В тексте могут быть указания на то, что в настоящий момент (момент речи) это действие не происходит, или вообще не быть никаких указаний.

 Например:

When Helen was a child she used to do homework every day. – Когда Елена была ребенком (= в детстве), она выполняла домашнюю работу каждый день.

В предложениях с отрицанием существует две формы употребления модального глагола Used to:

          Конструкция «Didn’t use to»:

We didn’t use to spend so much time at school. – Нам не приходилось (раньше) проводить столько много времени в школе.

          Конструкция «Used not to»:

Mary used not to work late at night. – Раньше Мери не приходилось работать ночью.
         По аналогии образуются и вопросы с модальной конструкцией Used to:

Did she used to go abroad every summer? – Yes, she used to. – Она (раньше) ездила за границу каждое лето? – Да, ездила.

Used to признается модальным глаголом не всеми, он занимает некое пограничное положение между модальными и полнозначными английскими глаголами. В отличие от всех остальных модальных глаголов, он используется только в форме прошедшего времени. Как следствие, когда он употребляется в комбинации с do для образования вопросов и отрицаний, вспомогательный глагол употребляется в прошедшем времени:

Упражнение 1.  Используйте правильную форму глагола.

1. I used to go/used to gone on a hike with my mum and dad every weekend.
2. I used not to visit/didn’t use to visit any faraway places.
3. I didn’t used to read/didn’t use to read fantasy.
4. We use to spent/used to spend summer in the country.
5. Children used to wear/used to wore ugly uniforms at school.
6. I used disliked /used to dislike sightseeing.
7. Children use to were/used to be friendlier.

Упражнение 2. Перепишите предложения, используя used to в нужной форме.

ОБРАЗЕЦ: She was a Science teacher. She isn’t now. — She used to be a Science teacher.

1.We didn’t have a dishwasher when I was little. 2. Jim played in the team last year. He doesn’t play anymore. 3. I knew few famous people. Now many of them are my friends. 4. My granny enjoyed knitting. Now she prefers outdoor activities. 5. My skin looked pale in spring. Now I’m sun-tanned. 6. My sister doesn’t live with us anymore. She got married and moved to Paris.

DISEASES OF ANIMALS AND BIRDS

Bird flu (avian influenza)

In people, bird flu usually begins like conventional influenza, with fever, cough, sore throat and muscle aches, but bird flu can lead to lifethreatening complications.

Bird flu viruses are complex, with a number of subtypes and strains that vary considerably from one another. Among birds, the effects of low pathogenic viruses are usually ruffled feathers or reduced egg production. But highly pathogenic forms cause severe disease, and almost 100 percent mortality in susceptible species. In some cases, domestic birds may die when symptoms are appeared. Scientists dоn't yet know how these subtypes affect humans, but highly pathogenic viruses appear causing the most serious problems – the greatest number of deaths – in both people and animals. Although the exact incubation period for bird flu in humans isn't clear, illness is developed within one to five days. Sometimes the only indication of the disease is a relatively mild eye infection (conjunctivitis). But more often, signs and symptoms of bird flu resemble those of conventional influenza, including: cough, fever, sore throat, muscle aches.

Migratory waterfowl and ducks in particular carry the viruses that cause bird flu. Often unaffected themselves, the host birds can spread the infection to susceptible species, especially domesticated chickens, turkeys and geese, resulting in severe epidemics that kill large numbers of birds – sometimes in a single day.

Direct bird-to-human transmission works like this: infected migratory waterfowl carry bird flu viruses, shed the virus in their droppings, saliva and nasal secretions. Domestic poultry become infected from contact with these birdsor with contaminated water, feed or soil. They may also catch the disease by inhaling the airborne virus. Bird flu spreads quickly and lethally within a flock and is inadvertently transported from farm to farm on tractors and other equipment, on cages, and on workers' shoes and clothing. Heat destroys the virus, but it can survive for extended periods in cool temperatures. Open-air markets, where eggs and birds are often sold in crowded and unsanitary conditions, are hotbeds of infection and spread the disease into the wider community. Scientists don't think that migratory birds are carrying the virus from continent to continent because outbreaks haven't followed traditional flyways. Instead, outbreaks seem much more likely to spread locally through “wet markets”, contaminated clothing and equipment, and smuggled birds.

Vocabulary

bird flu - птичий грипп

conventional influenza - обычный грипп

fever - лихорадка, жар

cough - кашель

sore throat - ангина

muscle ache - боль в мышцах

ruffled - взъерошенный

feather - перо

mortality - смертность

migratory - мигрирующие

waterfowl - водяные птицы

infected - инфицированные

dropping - помет животных, навоз

nasal secretion ['neizəl si'kri:∫ən] выделение носовой cекреции

domesticated - одомашнивание

poultry - домашняя птица

contaminated - зараженный

to inhale - вдыхать

to destroy - уничтожать

to survive - выживать

hotbed - очаг

outbreak - вспышка

to smuggle - провозить тайно

direct bird-to-human transmission прямая передача от птицы к человеку

Упражнение 1. Ответьте на вопросы.

1. What symptoms of bird flu do people have?

2. What symptoms of bird flu do the birds have?

3. What birds carry the viruses that cause bird flu?

4. What birds can the host birds spread the infection to?

5. What way do infected birds shed the virus by?

6. How does domestic poultry become infected?

7. How is bird flu spread?

8. What destroys the virus?

9. What are hotbeds of infection?

10. What do scientists think about outbreaks of bird flu?

11. What treatment for bird flu do the birds have?

Psoroptose of neat cattle

Psoroptose of neat cattle is an infectious disease. The disease is clinically revealed in herds after the establishment of stable cold spell and the arrangement of stalled keeping of cattle.

The infection mostly often occurs when sick animals contact with healthy ones.

Usually the first symptoms of the disease in herbs are revealed in animals with chronic dermatitis. Then the number of sick animals in the herb is growing and sick animals' psoroptose process is progressing. The disease spreads quickly among young animals (up to the age of 2 years) than adult animals.

With a warm spell, the disease is gradually dying down and then the clinical symptoms of the disease disappear. Animals that have got the disease and haven't been cured get ill again the next cold period and serve as a source of the disease.

Lice and vlasoedi contribute to a great extent to development of psoroptose. Paraziting on animals' bodies, they provoke irritation of skin neural ends and itch and make better conditions for accustoming of ticks.

Coetaneous ticks pierce epidermis with their proboscis and secrete toxic secretion, provoke the development of inflammation process and itch.

The increase of the number of ticks contributes to a quick involving of healthy skin parts into a pathological process. The scratched skin surface bleeds. Mixing with hair and scabs, blood coagulates and makes big dark scabs.

Primarily, the nidi of the affection are localized at the base of horns, on the upper part of a neck, on a sacral bone, at the root of a tail. Then process spreads on the other parts of a body. The first clinical symptom is a skin itch. An animal licks and scratches itching places.

The itch reveals in rest and in movement, day and night, sometimes the process is complicated with the formation of the piodermic focuses. The disease weakens animals, it makes them predispose to other disease and it may become the cause for death.

The general development of psoroptose of neat cattle is characterized by the duration of the treatment. There are suggested medical and prophylactic treatments of neat cattle. They are used with the help of the method of largedrop sprinkling in the form of emulsions, suspensions and solutions, and by ointments and liniments. The insecticide powder is used in cold seasons.

It's obligatory to quarantine all the new coming animals to the farm, to keep animals in accordance with veterinary-sanitary norms, to organize full highly-qualified feeding.

Vocabulary

psoroptose – псороптоз

neat cattle - крупный рогатый скот

to reveal –проявляться

stalled keeping - стойловое содержание

sick - больной

herb - гурт

to cure - лечить

lice - вши

to provoke - вызывать

irritation - раздражение

neural - нервный

itch - зуд

coetaneous - кожный

tick - клещ

to pierce - прокалывать

proboscis - хоботок

secretion - выделение, секреция

inflammation - воспаление

to bleed - кровоточить

scab - корка

coagulate - свертываться

nidi - очаги

affection - поражение

sacral bone - крестец

to lick - зализывать

itching place - зудящее место

piodemic - пиодермический

focuse - фокус

to prediscope - предрасполагать

large-drop - крупнокапельный

sprinkling - опрыскивание