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материал по английскому языку по теме

Примерная тематика заданий раздела 5 (задания по говорению)

Общение происходит в рамках следующих сфер общения и примерной тематики:
— Социально-бытовая сфера общения (общение в семье и школе, межличностные отношения с друзьями и сверстниками);
— Социально-культурная сфера (досуг и увлечения молодёжи, страны изучаемого языка, родная страна, выдающиеся люди, их вклад в науку и мировую культуру, природа и проблемы экологии, здоровый образ жизни);
— Учебно-трудовая сфера (проблема выбора профессии и роль иностранного языка).

Время выполнения работы

Время выполнения первых четырёх разделов экзаменационной работы — 90 мин (1,5 часа).
Рекомендуемое время выполнения отдельных разделов: Раздел 1 (задания по аудированию) — 20 мин. Раздел 2 (задания по чтению) — 20 мин. Раздел 3 (задания по грамматике и лексике) — 20 мин. Раздел 4 (задание по письму) — 30 мин. Время устного ответа составляет 6 минут на одного отвечающего. Время подготовки к устному ответу: 8-10 минут!

Примерные темы для экзамена по английскому языку в 11 классе общеобразовательных учреждений

Наша страна.

Москва.

Страны изучаемого языка.

Проблемы молодежи.

Моя визитная карточка.

Выбор профессии.

Спорт и здоровый образ жизни.

Изучение иностранных языков.

Путешествие.

Охрана окружающей среды.

Праздники и традиции в России и в странах изучаемого языка.

Выдающиеся деятели нашей страны и страны изучаемого языка.

Средства массовой информации.

Свободное время. Хобби.

Школа.

Искусство (музыка, театр, живопись, кино).

Музеи и картинные галереи.

Книги.

Проблемы современного города и деревни.

Международные организации.

Права человека.

Молодежная культура.

Проблемы занятости молодежи.

1. Our country

Geographical outline

Where is Russia situated?

Russia stretches over a vast expanse of eastern Europe and northern Asia. It is the world's largest country. Russia covers almost twice the territory of either the United States or China. In the west Russia boarders on Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, and Poland through Kaliningrad province. In the south our country boarders on Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, and North Korea.

What is Russia washed by?

Russia is washed by twelve seas and three oceans. It confronts the Baltic Sea in the west. The Black, Caspian, and Azov Seas wash Russia in the south. The Arctic Ocean and conjoined seas such as the White, Barents, Kara, Laptev, East-Siberian Seas are in the north. The Pacific Ocean and conjoined seas including the Bering, Okhotsk, and Japanese Seas wash Russia in the east.

What are Russia's main regions?

Russia's main regions are the Russian (or East European) Plain, the Ural Mountains, the West Siberian Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau, and the Far East.

What can you tell us about each region?

The Russian Plain takes up the European part of Russia. There are low, rolling uplands and broad rivers there. In the north the relief of the plain is scattered with lakes and swamps. In the southern part of the plain the river basins are cut by valleys and ravines. In the south, the Russian Plain is edged by the Caucasus Mountains between the Black and Caspian seas. The Urals form the eastern boundary of the Russian Plain. It is held that the Urals separate Europe from Asia. The Urals stretch for about 2,100 km from north to south. The highest peak, Mount Narodnaya, reaches 1,895 m, and other maintain tops range from 900 to 1,500 m. The West Siberian Plain merges in the east with the Central Siberian Plateau. The easternmost part of Russia is bounded by various mountain chains. The Far East of Russia includes the Kamchatka and Chukchi peninsulas and the Kuril and Sakhalin islands.

What are the most important rivers in Russia?

The most important rivers in the European part of Russia are the Don and Volga. The Volga River, which flows in the Caspian Sea, is of great historic, economic, and cultural importance to Russia. It has become the cradle of such ancient Russian cities as Vladimir, Tver, Yaroslavl, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod. In the West Siberia the greatest rivers are the Ob and Yenisey. They flow along the most extensive lowland in the world. The Yenisey flows into the Kara Sea.

What is the deepest lake in Russia?

The Baikal is the deepest lake in the world.

What can you say about the population of Russia?

Russia ranks sixth in the world in the size of its population. The great majority of the population of Russia are Russians. Russia is inhabited by sixty other nationalities, and about twenty five of these minorities have their own autonomous republics within the Russian Federation. The population in Russia is unequally distributed. The bulk of the people live in the European part of the republic. Siberia is insufficiently populated, though its economic development was rapid in the second half of the 20th century. The northern part of Russia is practically uninhabitable because of the length and severity or its winter. About three-quarters of Russia's population is classified as urban.

What types of climate are there on the territory of Russia?

There are various types of climate on the territory of Russia. Continental climate, with cold winters and mild or warm summers prevails. Continental weather extremes increase eastward and are obvious in eastern Siberia, which experiences bitterly cold winters. The harshness of the Russian climate limits the amount of arable land to about one-seventh of the total territory.

Is Russia's flora rich?

Different latitudinal climatic regimes are mirrored in Russia's flora. A treeless tundra with mosses and grasses extends along the entire Arctic coast. In the south it gives way to taiga. This coniferous forest growing on swampy ground covers more than half of the country. In European Russia, towards the south the taiga is replaced by a zone of mixed coniferous and deciduous forest which in the south transfers into mixed forest-steppe and finally into the almost treeless, grass-covered steppe.

How is farmland used in Russia?

About three-fifths of Russian farmland is used to grow crop. The rest of it is given to pasture and meadow. Grain has always been the chief product - mainly wheat, rye, barley, and oats - along with such fodder crops as grasses, clover, root crops, and corn. Russia's industrial crops are sunflower seeds, sugar beets, and flax. Such consumer crops as potatoes and other vegetables are grown widely in Russia.

What does Russia's access to the oceans promote?

Russia's access to both the Pacific and Atlantic oceans promotes the development of its fishing industry. Russian fishing fleets ply not only the seas around Russia but also fishing grounds off North America and West Africa. There are also important inland fisheries on lakes and rivers. For example, the Caspian sturgeon is the source of the finest caviar.

Is Russia rich in natural resources?

Russia has the riches deposits of mineral resources in the world. It is one of the world's biggest producers of coal, oil and natural gas, as well as of iron ore, copper, zinc, lead, nickel, aluminium, and tin.

Is Russia's industry well-developed?

The development of the Russian economy is determined by its natural resources. Russia's heavy industries are well-developed. They produce much of the nation's steel and most of its heavy machinery, such as steam boilers, grain-harvesting combines, automobiles, locomotives, and machine tools. Russia's chemical industry is also well developed. Light industry centres on the production of textiles.

What transports are used in Russia?

All kinds of transports are used in Russia. Some of them are well-developed, others leave much to be desired. Railways account for about 90 percent of the country's movement of freight. The Trans-Siberian Railroad is rightfully famous. Highways link major cities. Maritime transport is very important, both on sea and by river and canal. Aeroflot is among the world's largest airlines in terms of quantity of equipment and flights.

Political system, history and culture

When was the Russian Federation set up?

The Russian Federation was set up by the Constitution of 1993. After its destruction the Soviet Union was broken up into independent Russia and 14 other new, sovereign nations 1991.

Who is the head of the Russian Federation?

Under the Constitution of 1993 Russia is a Presidential Republic. It is headed by the President who is elected for a four-year term. The President is commander-in-chief of the armed forces, he makes treaties, and enforces laws, appoints the prime minister, cabinet members, and key judges. The President can override and in some cases even dissolve the national parliament, the bicameral Federal Assembly.

What are the branches of the Russian government?

The government consists of three branches: legislative, executive and judicial. Each of them is checked and balanced by the President. The legislative power is vested in the Federal Assembly. It consists of the Federation Council (upper house) and the State Duma (lower house). The members of the State Duma are elected by popular vote for a four-year period. The Federation Council is not elected. It is formed of the heads of the regions. Each Chamber is headed by the Chairman. Legislature is initiated in the State Duma. But to become a law a bill must be approved by the Lower and Upper Houses and signed by the President. The executive power belongs to the Government. The judicial branch is represented by the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, and regional courts.

What are Russia's state symbols?

Today the state Russian flag is three coloured. It has three horizontal stripes: white, blue and red. The white stripe symbolizes the earth, the blue one stands for the sky, and the red one signifies liberty. It was the first state symbol to replace the former symbols in 1991. The hymn of Russia is created by Alexandrov and Mikhalkov. Now the national coat of arms is a two-headed eagle. It is the most ancient symbol of Russia.

What is the official language of the Russian Federation?

Russian is the official, but not the only language which people speak in the country. Members of more than 60 other ethnic groups who live in Russia speak their own languages. The people of the Altaic group speak mainly Turkic, and Mongolian languages. The members of the Uralic group speak Uralic languages. The representatives of the Caucasus group speak various languages of the North Caucasus region of Russia. The people of Paleosiberian groups speak variety of languages of far-eastern Siberia.

What religions do the peoples of the Russian Federation confess?

Religions are diverse on the territory of Russia. The Slavs are mostly Orthodox Christian. The Turkic speakers are mainly Muslim. The Mongolians are customarily Buddhist.

When did the Early Russian State come into being?

Russia's history dates back to the year 862. In the 9th century AD the Early Russian state came into being with the cities of Kiev, Novgorod and Vladimir as its centres. The newly established state started to rival with the Byzantine Empire. During the middle and late 10th century, Svyatoslav, grand prince of Kiev, began to unite the land of Rus; his son Vladimir continued the unification. He baptized Russia in 988.

Did Russia develop like the rest European countries of that time?

Yes, it did. As feudalism advanced, just as everywhere in Western Europe the Early Russian state began to disintegrated into separate principalities. The rulers of the Golden Horde took advantage of it and overran the Russian land. After the Mongol conquest of most of Russia about 1240, such principalities as Novgorod continued to prosper; others, such as Moscow and Tver, became important centres; and others declined. Ivan IV the Terrible was the first tsar of Russia. His military campaigns against the Tatars added several non-Slavic states to the empire. Ivan was succeeded by his son, Fyodor I. His brother-in-law Boris Godunov in fact ruled as regent and, after Fyodor's death, as tsar. But 15 years of dynastic upheaval, known as the Time of Troubles (1598-1613), ended with the election of Michael Romanov as tsar.

What changes took place in Russia in the 18th century?

The 18th century is the time of great reforms. Peter I the Great not only carried out a number of administrative and military reforms, but he Westernized the country's culture and style of life His aim was to transform Tsarism into a European kind of absolute monarchy.

How did Peter I reform education in Russia?

Peter I started to reform Russian education. The Tsar introduced secular education and made it compulsory for all state servants. Peter founded the Naval Academy. He organized the Academy of Sciences as an institution for scholarship, research, and instruction at the higher level.

What was one of the most fundamental legacies of Peter I?

The creation of a national standing army on Western model was one of the most fundamental legacies of the Tsar. By appropriating the Baltic provinces and areas along the Caspian Sea, Peter I the Great established Russia as a legitimate European power.

What title did Peter I the Great assume in 1721?

In 1721 he assumed the title of emperor (imperator), thus announcing in name as well as fact anew Russian Empire. From 1721 to 1917 Russia was the political centre of the Russian Empire.

Who consolidated Peter I's reforms?

Many of Peter I's reforms were consolidated by the empresses Elizabeth and Catherine II the Great. Catherine added the Crimea and Ukraine, as well as Polish territory, to the empire.

How did Russia develop in the 19th century?

Alexander I's attention was diverted from reforms by the Napoleonic Wars. Opposition to serfdom had been growing since the time of Catherine the Great, who had hoped to end it but was forced to extend it. The institution was finally abolished by Alexander II. The «Emancipation Manifesto» made bondaged peasants free. But the «Tsar Liberator» was assassinated by the revolutionaries in 1881.

What happened at the beginning of the 20th century in Russia?

Russian autocracy was defeated in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05. Months of students' disorders, scattered peasants' uprisings, mounting strikes and riots forced Nicholas II to agree to form a national Duma (parliament) with advisory powers. In the October Manifesto the emperor promised to create a legislative assembly and guarantee civil liberties. The October Manifesto inaugurated a period of constitutional government.

What do you know about the Dumas?

The First Duma was elected on a broad franchise, though it fell short of the franchise demanded by the parties of the Left. The old State Council became a party elective upper house. Nicholas II promised that no bill could become law without the Duma's approval. But the Duma's budgetary powers were limited, and though Duma deputies could question ministers, the latter were responsible only to the Tsar. The First Duma, which was dominated by the Cadets, met only from April to July. The bill for expropriation with compensation, of the lands of the gentry and others led the government to dissolve Duma. Between 1906 and 1917 several Dumas, often with left-wing majorities, were elected and dissolved, but there was little progress in reform owing to the stiffness of the monarchy and the resistance of the aristocracy.

How did the Bolsheviks come to power?

Russia's entry into World War I was a disaster for the nation. By the autumn of 1915 the country had lost more than a million men. In February 1917 the Romanov dynasty was overthrown, and a democratic Provisional Government was established. In October (November, New Style), the Bolsheviks seized the power. Russia withdrew from World War I, and the Bolsheviks defeated their opponents in a civil war, forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic became the largest and central component of the Soviet Union.

How did the country develop after the October Revolution?

In the 1930s the Soviet Union underwent rapid industrialization and collectivization. The USSR developed into a world power and played a major role in the defeat of Germany in World War II During the 1960s and '70s the Soviet Union tried to spread its influence world-wide. Mikhail Gorbachev's coming to power in 1985 marked the beginning of new changes in Soviet society - chiefly a restructuring (perestroika) of the nation's political and economic systems and a new openness (glasnost) in public discussion, debate, and cultural expression. By the 1990s, reformism had eroded the Communists' grasp on power, both at home and in eastern Europe. An attempted coup d'etat by Communist hard-liners on August 19-21, 1991, failed, permitting the further advance of political pluralism and democratic institutions - spearheaded by Russian President Boris Yeltsin popularly elected in June 1991.

Is Russia's population literate?

Yes, certainly. Russia's population is literate. Education is free at all levels and compulsory between the ages of 6 and 17. The educational system includes four-year primary schools and general, technical, or vocational secondary schools. University admittance is determined by competitive examination.

Can Russia be proud of its cultural life?

Literature, music, and dance have always occupied the most important places in Russian cultural life. The country's best-known writers are - Aleksandr Pushkin, Nikolay Gogol, Ivan Turgenev, Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Anton Chekhov, Boris Pasternak. They are popular throughout the world. The greatest Russian composers are Aleksandr Borodin, Modest Mussorgsky, Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov, and Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky. Their legacy is evident in more contemporary music, notably that of Sergey Rachmaninoff, Igor Stravinsky, Sergey Prokofiev, and Dmitry Shostakovich.

What are Russia's most important cities?

Russia's most important cities are Moscow and St. Petersburg, formerly Leningrad.

What can you tell us about Moscow?

Moscow is the capital of Russia. The date of its foundation is the year 1147. Moscow began to rise in the 14th century. Under Ivan III the Great, in the mid- fifteenth century, Moscow became the principal city of the state of Muscovy. Nowadays Moscow is the largest city of Russia. It is a political, administrative, economic, industrial, educational and cultural centre of the country.

Are there many educational institutions in Moscow?

Moscow has a large concentration of educational institutions. Its centres of higher education draw students from throughout Russia. Moscow State University is the leading educational institution. The city's many specialized educational institutions include the Moscow Timiryazev Academy of Agriculture and the Moscow Tchaikovsky State Conservatory.

Where is the growth of Moscow evident?

It is possible to trace successive epochs of its development by the Boulevard Ring and the Garden Ring - both following the line of former fortifications - the Moscow Little Ring Railway, and the Moscow Ring Road. They facilitate suburban commuter traffic.

What is located beyond the Garden Ring?

Beyond the Garden Ring is a middle zone dominated by 18th and 19th-century developments; many factories, railway stations and freight yards are located there. Since 1960 extensive urban renewal has occurred, producing neighbourhoods of high-rise apartment buildings.

Is public transportation well developed in Moscow?

Yes, it is. Muscovites heavily rely on public transportation provided by the Metropolitan (Metro) subway, buses, street cars, and trolleybuses.

What is the centre of the city?

The Kremlin is the centre of the city. It is the historical heart of Moscow. Its redbrick walls and towers were erected at the end of the 15th century. The former Senate building, the Kremlin Great Palace, and the modern Palace of Congresses are located within the walls of the Kremlin. The white bell tower of Ivan III the Great, the Armoury Museum, and the Arsenal are grouped around Cathedral Square. The Kremlin contains several cathedrals designed by Italian architects in a style combining Renaissance details with Russian architectural tradition.

What is the ceremonial centre of Moscow?

Red Square is the ceremonial centre of the capital.

What is located at the ends of Red Square?

The State Historical Museum closes off the northern end of the square. The Church of the Intercession, or Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed, is situated at the southern end of the square. It was built for Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible from 1554 to 1560 by the architects Barma and Postnik. The Cathedral is the final expression of pure Russian architectural fantasy in which Byzantine elements detached from their original meaning, were multiplied in unbelievable extravagance.

What Moscow theatres and art galleries are world-known?

The State Academic Bolshoi Theatre, Mali Theatre, and Moscow Art Theatre are world-known. Of the many museums and galleries, the State Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts and the State Tretyakov Gallery are especially notable.

What do you know about St. Petersburg?

St. Petersburg is one of the most beautiful cities of Europe. It has played an important role in Russian history. Founded by Peter I in 1703 it was the capital of the Russian Empire for two centuries. St. Petersburg was the scene of two revolutions. During World War II the city was besieged. The modern city is important as a cultural and industrial centre and as the nation's largest seaport.

Is St. Petersburg the city of rich cultural traditions!

St. Petersburg developed as a city of culture. There are a lot of theatres there. The Mariinsky Theatre has long enjoyed an international reputation, and its resident company is frequently on tour abroad. Other important theatres are the Mali, Gorky, Pushkin, and Musical Comedy theatres. Famous museums include the Hermitage and the State Russian Museum.

What is your favourite St. Petersburg museum?

The Hermitage is my favourite museum. It was founded in 1764 by Catherine the Great as a court museum. Under Nicholas I the Hermitage was reconstructed. It was opened to the public in 1852. After the October Revolution of 1917, the imperial collections became public property. The Hermitage has a rich collection of western European painting since the Middle Ages, including many masterpieces by Renaissance Italian and Baroque Dutch, Flemish, and French painters. Russian art is well represented. The Hermitage also has extensive holdings of Oriental art.

Are there any other Russian cities of historic importance?

Yes, there are. Vladimir, Suzdal, Yaroslavl played a very important role in the making of our state.

What can you say about Vladimir?

The city of Vladimir was founded in 1108 by Vladimir II Monomakh, grand prince of Kiev. In 1157 Prince Andrew Bogolyubsky moved his capital there from Kiev. The city suffered several Mongols attacks. In the 15th century it became a minor local centre. Today the city is proud of some superb examples of early Russian architecture. Especially noteworthy among these are the Kremlin; the Cathedral of the Assumption, built in 1158; the triumphal Golden Gate of 1158, restored under Catherine II. The Great; and the Cathedral of St. Dmitry.

How did Suzdal develop?

During the 12th to 14th centuries Suzdal principality achieved great political and economic importance. It became prominent during the reign of Andrew Bogolyubsky, who transferred the title of «grand prince» from Kiev to Suzdal, then to Vladimir. He and his brother and successor, Vsevolod III, organized a strong monarchical political system and, as rulers of the Grand Principality of Vladimir, became the most powerful of the Russian princes. They encouraged their subordinate princes to develop the principality and build churches, palaces, and new cities. Suzdal-Vladimir disintegrated into small principalities in the 13th and 14th centuries. In 1237 Suzdal became subject to the Golden Horde. In 1392 Prince Vasily I Dmitriyevich of Moscow annexed the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod region. The ancient cathedrals and monasteries still stand in their glory in Suzdal.

What is Yaroslavl notable for?

Yaroslavl is famous for its history and cathedral architecture. Established in 1010 by Prince Yaroslav the Wise, it served as the capital of an independent principality from 1218 until 1471. Then it came under the rule of Moscow. The opening of trade with the West during the 16th century brought prosperity to the town. By the late 18th century Yaroslavl had become an important industrial centre. Now Yaroslavl's industries produce heavy machinery, refined petroleum products, textiles, and synthetic rubber and tires.

What churches survived in Yaroslavl?

Many churches survived in Yaroslavl. Among them is the Transfiguration Cathedral (1505-16) of the Saviour Monastery. The churches of Elijah the Prophet, Nikola Nadein, and St. John the Baptist date from the 17th century.

Are there any other places of interest in Yaroslavl?

Yaroslavl has a university, four theatres - including Russia's first public theatre, founded in 1750 - an art gallery, several museums, and a symphony orchestra. Russia is a vast country. In every part of it there are places that contributed to its well being.

RUSSIAN FEDERATION (RUSSIA)

Russia is one of the largest countries in the world. It occupies about one-seventh part of dry land. It is situated in Europe and Asia. Its total area is over 17 million square kilometres.

The country is washed by seas and oceans.

There are different types of climate on the territory of the country. It is very cold in the North even in summer. The central part of the country has mild climate: winters are cold, springs and autumns are warm or cool, summers are hot and warm. In the South the temperature is usually above zero all year round, even in winter. Summer is really hot, the climate is very favourable. The climate of Siberia is continental: summers are hot and dry, winters are very cold.

Some parts of our country are covered with mountains and hills.

There are many rivers in Russia, the longest rivers are the Volga in Europe and the Yenisei and the Ob in Asia. The deepest lakes are the Baikal and the Ladoga.

The Russian Federation is very rich in mineral resources, such as oil, natural gas, coal, iron, gold and others.

Russia borders on many countries. Among them are Estonia, Latvia, Finland, Poland, China, Mongolia, Korea.

Moscow is the capital of our country. It was founded in 1147. It is a wonderful city. There are many sights in Moscow. You can see many museums, art galleries, theatres, churches and monuments in our capital. People of our country are proud of the Moscow Kremlin. There are also many big beautiful cities in Russia.

The population of Russia is about 150 million people. 83 per cent of the population are Russians. 70 per cent of the population live in cities.

2. Moscow

Moscow is the capital of Russia. It is one of the biggest and most beautiful cities in the world. Moscow is a modern city now. The population of the city is about 9.8 million people. Moscow is a political centre, where the government of our country works. Moscow was founded in 1147 by Yuri Dolgoruky. The total area of Moscow is about nine hundred square kilometres.

We say that Moscow is a port of five seas, as the Moscow-Volga Canal links Moscow with the Baltic, White, Caspian and Black seas and the Sea of Azov.

Moscow is an industrial centre too. There are many factories and plants in it. One of the best-known plants produces many lorries, and the other one produces cars.

The Bolshoi Theatre is one of the famous theatres all over the world. If you are fond of painting you can go to the Tretyakov Art Gallery or to the Pushkin Fine Arts Museum and see a lot of interesting portraits and landscapes there. We say that the Tretyakov Art Gallery is a treasure-house of Russian art. Young people like to visit the Central Military Museum. There are many tanks, guns and war documents there.

One can see the Kremlin and Red Square in the city. There are many fine buildings, wide streets, green parks, large squares, churches and monuments in Moscow.

It is necessary to mention such famous monuments as monuments to the great Russian writer Alexander Pushkin and to the first Russian printer Ivan Fedorov.

Visiting the capital a lot of foreigners from all over the world come to see these monuments.

One of the highest buildings in Moscow is the State Moscow University. It was founded in 1755 by the great scientist Mikhail Lomonosov.

Transport. Moscow is a very big city, and its transport must be comfortable and fast.

One can see a lot of cars, buses, trolleybuses, trams in the streets of our city. The Moscow metro began its work on the 15th of May, 1935. There were 13 stations at that time. Now it has 190 stations. Our metro is a beautiful and convenient one.

There are nine railway stations in Moscow and five airports around the city.

There are many stadiums in Moscow. The Central Stadium is in Luzhniki. Many competitions and football matches are held there.

The Olympic village was built for the 22nd Olympic Games in Moscow in 1980. It is a big complex for sport games.

I live in Moscow and I am proud of this city.

3. Countries of the learning language.

THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND

The United Kingdom is situated in the north-west coast of Europe between the Atlantic Ocean on the north-west and the North Sea on the east.

The U. K. includes Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Great Britain, the largest island in Europe, contains England, Scotland and Wales.

The United Kingdom has an area of 244,000 square kilometres (94,249 square miles). The capital of the country is London. English is the official language.

The population of the U. K. is nearly 60 million people. The population lives mostly in towns and cities and their suburbs. Four out of every five people live in towns. Over 46 million people live in England. Over 3 million - in Wales. A little over 5 million - in Scotland. About 1.5 million- in Northern Ireland. London's population is over 7 million people. The British nation consists of the English, the Scots, the Welsh and the Irish. There are many people of all colours and races in the United Kingdom.

The climate of Great Britain is mild. It is not too hot in summer or too cold in winter. It often rains in England. Rain falls in summer and in winter, in autumn and in spring. Snow falls only in the north and west of the country. The surface of England and Ireland is flat, but Scotland and Wales are mountainous. Many parts of the country have beautiful villages. There are many rivers in Great Britain. The main river is the Thames. Many ships and barges go up and down the river. The longest river is Severn. It is 350 kilometres long.

There are many universities, colleges, libraries, museums and theatres in the country. The most famous universities are Cambridge University, Oxford University, Glasgow University.

The U. K. is a parliamentary monarchy. The British Parliament consists of two Houses: the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The Prime Minister is the head of the government.

The United Kingdom has some mineral resources. Coal and oil are the most important of them. The United Kingdom is one of the world's most industrialized countries. The main industrial centres are Sheffield, Birmingham and Manchester. The largest cities of the country are London, Birmingham, Cardiff, Manchester, Glasgow, Belfast, Dublin.

Agriculture takes an important sector in economy of the country. The British people grow wheat, fruit, vegetables, oats.

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

The USA is one of the largest countries in the world. It is situated in the central part of the North American continent. The area of the USA is over nine million square kilometres. It is washed by the Pacific Ocean and by the Atlantic Ocean. The most northern part of the USA is Alaska, the largest state, separated from the rest of the country by Canada.

The population of the United States is nearly 250 million people, most of the people live in towns.

People of different nationalities live in the USA,

The official language of the country is English. The capital of the country is Washington. It was named in honour of the first President, George Washington.

As the USA is a large country, the climate is different in different regions. For example, the Pacific coast is a region of mild winters and warm, dry summers, but the eastern continental region is watered with rainfall. The region around the Great Lakes has changeable weather.

There are many mountains in the USA. For example, the highest peaks of the Cordillera in the USA are 6,193 and 4,418 metres.

The main river of the country is the -Mississippi. But there are many other great rivers in the USA: the Colorado in the south and the Columbia in the north west. There are five Great Lakes between the USA and Canada.

The USA produces more than 52 per cent of the world's corn, wheat, cotton tobacco.

There are many big cities in the country. They are Washington (the capital of the country), New York (the city of contrasts, financial and business centre of the USA), Boston (there are many colleges and universities in it), Chicago (one of the biggest industrial cities in the USA), San Francisco, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Detroit (one of the biggest centres of the automobile industry).

The USA has an Academy of Sciences. There are many scientific institutions, museums, libraries, theatres and other interesting places in the country.

The USA is a highly developed industrial country. The USA is rich in mineral resources, such as aluminium, salt, zinc, coppers, and others. The country is rich in coal, natural gas, gold and silver, too. It holds one of the first places in the world for the production of coal, iron, oil, natural gas.

Such industries as machine-building, ship-building are highly developed in the country.

American agriculture produces a lot of food products: grain, fruit, vegetables.

The USA is a federal republic, consisting of fifty states. Each of these states has its own government. Congress is the American Parliament which consists of two Chambers.

The president is the head of the state and the government. He is elected for four years.

NEW ZEALAND

New Zealand is a very interesting country. It has got total area of 269,000 square kilometres. It is situated to south-east of Australia in the Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main islands (North Island and South Island) and some smaller ones. Nearly 3.5 million people live in the country. The capital of New Zealand is Wellington. It is a financial centre too. The city was founded in 1840 and has been the capital since 1865. The official language is English.

The climate of New Zealand is moist. New Zealand is rich in minerals. There are some main industries in the country, for example, iron and steel industry. The country has gas and petroleum. There are many mountains in New Zealand. The highest is Mount Cook (3,764 metres or 12,349 feet).

There are many rivers and lakes in the country. The chief rivers are the Waikato and the Wairu. You have heard about the native animals in the country. One of them is the kiwi. This interesting bird lives in the wet parts of the thick bushes. In the day-time the bird does not go out. It comes out only at night to find food. Kiwis cannot fly. Many years ago kiwis were hunted for food. Now the government does not permit the hunting the kiwis. The kiwi is now the symbol of New Zealand people. Small children are often called kiwis.

New Zealand is independent state, but formerly it is a part of the British Empire. The head of the state is the Queen. New Zealand is self-governing state. The Parliament consists of one House only, the House of Representatives. The Prime Minister is the head of the government.

New Zealand has got heavy industry. There are many plants in the country. Paper and rubber industries are developed too. New Zealand exports wool, meat, butter.

There are some big cities such as Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dune-din, Nelson. Auckland and Wellington are the main ports of the country.

There are some educational and cultural institutions in Wellington. They are the University of New Zealand, Victoria University College and others. Victoria University was established in 1897.

New Zealand is a very interesting and beautiful country.

THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA

The Commonwealth of Australia is a federal state. It has got six states: New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania and two internal territories. The official language is English.

Australia is situated in the south-west of the Pacific Ocean.

The area of this country has got 7,687,000 square kilometres. Australia is the largest island in the world and it is the smallest continent. The Dutch were the first Europeans to visit Australia. In 1770 the English captain James Cook discovered the east coast of Australia.

Nearly 20 million people live in Australia.

Australia's climate is dry and warm. Australia is situated in the southern hemisphere and that's why there is summer, when we have winter and there is winter, when we have summer. It is interesting to know that January is the hottest month in Australia.

Australia is separated from many countries. The animals in Australia have a lot of original, and they are interesting, for example, dingoes (wild dogs), koala bears, kangaroos.

The kangaroo and koala have got the pouch in which they carry their cubs. There are many birds in the country, too. One can see parrots and cockatoos. The emu is the most interesting bird in Australia. It is big and can't fly.

There are many rivers and lakes in the country.

Australia is an industrial country. It has coal, nickel, zinc, gold. Several factories and plants work in the country. Australia is one of the most important producers of metals and minerals. It exports wool production, meat, fruit, sugar.

The capital of the country is Canberra. The city became the capital in 1927. Federal Government works in Canberra in the government buildings. It is interesting to know that there are no industrial plants in Canberra.

The population of Canberra is about 300,000 people.

There are many sights in the city. They are the Building of the Australian Academy of Sciences, the Australian National University and others. There are two big industrial cities in Australia: Sydney and Melbourne.

The habited part of the country is situated near ocean. Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and others are the ports of the country.

Australia is a part of the British Empire. Formerly the head of the state is the Queen, but in fact Australia is independent, self-governing state. The Parliament consists of two Houses.

There are many universities, theatres and museums in Australia.

4. Youth problems

Problems of the youth (friendship, love, conflicts)

What are the problems of the youth?

Youth is the time when a person is trying to find his place in the world. And during this search he or she comes across different problems which are as important as those of the adults. The youth of the twenty first century face almost the same the problems which were acute to their parents when they were young.

What is the most important problem of the youth?

One of them is a generation gap. Every generation is unique in its experience. It has its own ideals and a system of values concerning every aspect of human life. Adults always complain that the young are not what they were. These words are repeated from generation to generation. Undoubtedly it is correct. In fact today the young are better educated. They grow up more quickly. They derive joy from more freedom. At present the young do not blindly accept the ideals of their parents. For them everything that the adults bear in mind is past history. And this is inevitable, because different generations take different directions. Moreover, the young look forward and the old people look backward. The adult always teach the young how to live. They apply old standards to the new way of life. The past is hanging over them preventing them from appreciating the things around them anew. The young think that the adults have lost touch with everything that is important in life. They are right, because what is important to the adults is the past. The young know what they want. They prefer to make their own mistakes rather than to listen to the warnings of the adults. The past exists to help the young to avoid unnecessary blurs. But they do want to have them. The young want to live their own life. They want to overcome their own difficulties without turning back. Unfortunately the life of the young is frequently determined by the adults. The adults start the war but the young die in it. The young and adults have different points of view concerning everything. And it generates the conflict of the generations. In the 19th century Ivan Turgenev in his novel «Fathers and Sons» perfectly illustrated the eternal problem of fathers and children's misunderstanding. I think that parents will never understand their children.

Why?

Every new generation is different from the one that preceded it. Today the differences are especially considerable. The adults always believe that they know best only because they have been around a bit longer. They don't want their values to be doubted. The young on the other hand are questioning the assumptions of the adults, they suspect that the world created by their predecessors was not the best one.

Was there any clash of values between generations?

It is known far and wide that the clash of tastes and values between generations occurs in the main in highly developed countries. Occasionally it was sharp, especially in the 1960s and '70s in Western Europe and the USA.

Can you see the solution to this problem?

Certainly. I think that the only way to solve this insoluble problem both the young and adults should be tolerant and patient. Despite our generation differences there are no clashes of values in our family and my parents are my best friends. They always help me, console me, and try to help me to solve my problems.

What is another problem of the youth?

Another problem of the youth is the relationship of the young people with their friends and beloved. I believe in male friendship, and I doubt that there can be any real female friendship.

Do you have a lot of friends?

I think it is impossible to have a lot of friends. A person can be on good terms with his or her classmates or university groupmates but have only one or two real friends. I believe that real friends will never betray each other. They will always understand and help each other. It is true that tolerance is the pledge of friendship. It is wonderful if your school friend will remain your friend for the rest of your life. Unfortunately, when one enters a university school friends are often replaced by the new ones.

Are there any other problems of the young?

The problem of love is very important for the young. Today they young fall in love when they reach the age of Romeo and Juliet. Romanticism and idealism very often accompany the love of the young. Their belief in eternal love can end dramatically. Today nobody doubts about the depth of their passion. It is regrettable, but the young are not always ready to have stable relations. For a happy family life two people must understand and respect each other. It should be said that the young have other problems as well. They are concerned with education, money, employment, hobby, spending their free time, communication, and the like. And of course one of the most urgent problems is the accommodations problem. Few young people in our country have their own apartments. In the main they share the apartments with their parents even after getting married.

Do young Americans have the same housing problem?

I do not think so. As far as I know many young Americans do not live with their families.

Where do young Americans prefer to live?

They prefer to live in apartment blocks or residential areas where everyone is more or less of the same age. Young people often move away from home when they leave school (if they can afford it) into shared apartments or small, one-room «studio» apartments. They do their own cooking and cleaning, and go to the family home perhaps for the weekend.

Where do young married couples reside in the USA?

In the USA young married couples may move to new suburbs where most people have young families. In the countryside, some even build their houses themselves. If a family's income goes up, they often move" to another suburb, where the houses are bigger, with two or even three garages, a swimming pool, a games room for the children and everything a family could want.

Do grown-up children live with their old parents in the USA?

Old people do not live with their grown-up children. Many live in old people's homes. Some live in special towns, built for old people, where there are no young children and the atmosphere is quiet.

Is it typical for Americans?

I am sure it is. Americans are always on the move, and sortie families change their homes every few years.

Where can average Americans start and end their lives?

For example, Mr. and Mrs. Smith could start life in an apartment in New York, go on to a white painted wooden home in New England with small windows to keep out the cold in winter, move to a sunny house in California where oranges grow in the garden and big windows give a wonderful view of the swimming pool and the sea, and end their life in a town for old people.

What are the problems of the American youth?

It is difficult for me to answer this question. From the information derived from the mass media I can conclude that their problems are connected with their beliefs and values. Hard work is part of the American Dream. To be a success is important in America. Society frowns upon those who don't achieve it, that is why all young Americans want to work hard and be a success. The first step to it is a high school diploma. Without it, it is almost impossible to be successful. In order to get, it is necessary to compete, as rivalry is the spur to achievement. Winning is an American passion. In this case it is very important to be conscious of the society around and never do dirty tricks. Another problem that worries the young is to be well-liked. This feature is associated with the American Dream too. On the social level it is part of people's personalities. And of course communication can be one more problem not only of the young Americans but of all young people of today.

How do the young communicate nowadays?

Today the young can choose either traditional way of communication or a modern one. Traditionally the young meet after classes with their school or university friends at a cafe or a club to get fun, relax and acquire new friends. They go to the cinemas, theatres, concert halls or disco clubs. But if the young people do not like noisy clubs and other places of entertainment, they can find friends without leaving their apartments - the Internet gives such an opportunity. Although this international Web Wide Web is intended for getting knowledge, only few users employ it in this way. Other users employ the ICQ programme only for chatting. They can sit for twenty two hours at their displays carrying on endless chats with newly made friends. And it is a great problem of the present and future. Such young people do not eat, sleep, work or learn properly. They are only interested in their e-mail boxes. The best way for them is to go on chatting with their ICQ partners without meeting them. In general all the problems of the youth are linked with the present rather then with the past or future.

All people have problems. Some of them have many problems, the others have one or two problems only.

Young people have as many problems as the grown-ups. It is possible to solve some problems but sometimes we can not solve this or that problem. The first problem is to choose a good friend. I know the proverb "A friend in need is a friend indeed." I agree with it, that's why I try to make friends with gay and true persons.

I want to have a friend who understands me. It will be simple and interesting to speak to him or her.

I think that young people have problems with their parents. What are they? Sometimes we have different tastes. I like the proverb "There is no accounting for tastes." For example, I go to the shops with my mother. She likes this dress but I like that one. My mother wants me to buy this dress. But I am sure, that dress is much to my taste.

My parents want me to be a teacher as they are skilled teachers but I have a taste for music, and my dream is to be a composer.

Where can we go? What can we do if we have free time? My friend Nastya lives in the village. Her village is far from Moscow. It takes her three hours to go to Moscow. She says that there is nowhere to go and there is nothing to do in her village. There are no clubs, museums, cinemas, parks there. If she wants to go to Moscow it'll take her a lot of money. She can't afford it.

It is a problem to get a good education.

It is necessary to pay for a good education. I think it is difficult to learn English, for example, without additional classes.

I can't enter the Institute without good knowledge. To get it it is necessary to pay for it and have heavy expenses.

Many good teachers leave schools because they haven't got enough money, persons without special experience can't teach the pupils well.

I am sure that all teenagers want to have a lot of money to dress well, to go to the theatres, to visit foreign countries, to eat what they want, to buy books... How can they solve all these problems?

They have to earn money. I think it is possible to do it. Some boys wash cars, the others sell newspapers, some of my friends help old persons. Many of my friends have load of care.

We have some problems but we are sure that we solve them in a proper way.

I think that the young people in other countries have many problems too. I have a pen-friend in Italy. He usually writes that his parents make him to do a lot of house-work. It is strange for us, but my friend Jack from London has his biggest problem - his freckles.

5. Introducing yourself

My name is Kostya. My surname is Laznev. I was born in Moscow on the 23rd of June in 1981. I am a tall thin boy. My hair is dark and short. My face is oval, my nose is straight. My eyes are large and brown. My friends say that I am a good-looking boy. I like to dress well. I usually wear black trousers, light shirts, clean boots.

I have a dream to enter the Institute.

I worked hard at school. We studied many subjects such as History, Russian, Physics, Geography and others. I was fond of English and Physics. And I was good at them.

I think that I am honest, serious and polite.

I want to get a good education and find an interesting and useful work. I have a hobby. I like to sing songs. My father likes to sing songs too. He knows many good songs and we usually sing songs together.

Nowadays young people don't like classical music. They prefer pop music. My parents invite me to some very good concerts of classical music. It is great. I am very grateful to my parents because now I begin to understand how wrong I was going only to pop concerts.

I am proud of my mother and father. They are musicians. We like to spend our free time together. We often go to the museums, to the Concert Halls, to the theatres.

I want to say that I respect my parents.

6. Education and future profession

What are you going to do after finishing secondary school?

After finishing secondary school I shall go on to further education. I shall become an applicant for entry. And as all applicants for entry I shall take competitive examinations. The entrance examinations I am reading for are held in July. I hope to pass them successfully.

What are your friends going to do after finishing secondary school?

Alice wants to become a professional pianist. But first, she is going to spend a year learning French. Peter's dream is to train as a pilot.

What are your career prospects?

Today a school-leaver can choose any career he or she likes. A school-leaver can become a journalist, a dentist, a surgeon, a designer, an economist, a manager and the like. I feel that things that will happen in my life will be wonderful. I think my classmates have the same feeling too. I hope that I'll be what I want to be.

Where do you want to study?

I want to study at Moscow State University named after Michael Lomonosov.

What do you know about this University?

Moscow State University is the largest university of Russia. It was founded in 1755. At that time there were only three faculties there.

Who initiated the foundation of the University?

The foundation of Moscow University was inspired by the radical philosophical and political views of Michael Lomonosov. The University was established by the order of Elizabeth, the Russian Empress. In the late 18th century Moscow University became the centre of advanced Russian science and social thought.

What makes Moscow State University known world-wide?

Moscow State University is known world-wide for its academic excellence. Today it is one of the best universities in the world. Here students can learn skills which fit them for a better career. Moscow State University reputation stays with its graduates - and their achievements in turn glorify it.

What faculty are you going to study at?

At first I wanted to become a biologist and study at the Biology Faculty. Until recently I had an idea that my interests lie in biology. I am fond of the recent discoveries in biology, especially in the field of cloning. The achievements of the past decades are startling. They have surpassed the most challenging dreams of the fantastic writers. But recently I have changed my mind. I want to be a historian.

Is it your own choice?

Of course, this is my own choice. But I want to say that it is not easy or simple to decide what career to choose. As is known the success or failure of adult life depends upon the choice made early in life. It should be said that I've discussed this problem with my parents and teachers. We also have spoken a lot with my friends about our career prospects.

Why have you chosen history as your future speciality?

I have chosen History as my future profession because I like it. Historians have tried to understand past human lives and societies. All serious historians have been engaged in collecting and recording historical facts. History gives not only an immense base of historical facts but it helps to understand the global historical processes. It gives historians an opportunity to interpret the processes of the past, explain the processes of the present and foresee the processes of the future. Historians respect facts, they try to avoid errors, and create their convincing interpretation.

What do you know about the system of higher education in Russia?

The Russian educational policy is a combination of economic and social objectives. In the terms of the ration of students to the total population Russia ranks among the top ten countries in the world. There are a lot universities and colleges in Russia. They teach almost in all subject areas: Arts, Sciences, Law, Engineering, etc. The staff are knowledgeable in their subjects. Higher educational institutions are headed by Rectors. Vice-rectors are in charge of the academic and scientific work. The Departments are headed by the Deans. There are subdivisions within Departments. Higher educational institutions train undergraduates and postgraduate students in one specialization. Usually after completing five years of study students receive a university degree. For five years at the end of each year students have oral examinations. Moreover, they write a graduate paper for a university degree. They write dissertations for advanced degrees. After three years of post-graduate work and the writing of the dissertation it is possible to obtain a candidate degree.

Is higher education compulsory in Russia?

Higher education is not compulsory in Russia. School is compulsory and free for all. If applicants for entry pass their entrance exams successfully they are admitted to the University free of charge, otherwise they must pay a tuition fee. Institutions of higher education include: technical training colleges, teachers training colleges, universities which offer bachelor's and master's degrees programmes.

What can you say about school education in Russia?

Russian children start school at the age of six. But most of them have learnt letters in kindergarten which is now part of primary school. Primary and secondary schools consist of eleven years of classes which meet for about nine months a year, five days a week and five hours a day. Every school has a 'core curriculum' of Russian, mathematics, science and PT. A variety of subjects are taught at lyceums and gymnasiums. In Russia there is a nine-year compulsory education, but to enter a university one has to study two years more. All Russian schools until recently have been state-subsidized.

When do school children have holidays?

Russian pupils have four holidays a year. The academic year is split into four terms. Autumn vacation and spring vacation are very short. They last only a week each. Winter vacation lasts two weeks. Summer vacation is the longest one. It lasts from two to three months.

Do Russian students have holidays?

Students have holidays twice a year. They take a fortnight rest after winter exams, and they are holidaying for four weeks after summer exams.

What problems does Russian educational system face?

The systems of secondary and higher education in Russia are going through a transitional period. As for secondary education, the idea of replacing eleven years of classes by twelve years of classes is being discussed now. I doubt that it will be welcomed by school children. They prefer to finish school as early as possible. Some of them finish school at the age of fifteen and enter different universities. Too young students is one of the recent problems of Russian universities. Other problems concern the reforms within universities. The main objectives of higher education reform are: decentralization of the higher education system, development of the autonomy of higher educational institutions, expansion of academic freedoms of faculties and students, development of new financial mechanism.

What do you know about British universities?

There are 46 universities in Britain. But not all universities are equal. They differ from one another in history, tradition, academic organization. Oxford and Cambridge are the oldest world-known universities. The University of London is one of the best UK's universities.

What does a British university usually consist of?

A British university usually consists of colleges. The departments of the colleges are organized into faculties.

Does University teaching in the UK differ from that in other countries?

Yes, it does. University teaching in the UK differs greatly at both under-graduate and postgraduate levels from that in many other countries.

What does an undergraduate programme consist of?

An undergraduate programme consists of a series of lectures, seminars, tutorials and laboratory classes which in total account for about 15 hours per week. Following a particular programme students take series of lecture courses which may last one academic term or the whole year. Associated with each lecture course are seminars, tutorials, laboratory classes which illustrate the topics presented in the lectures. Lectures are given to large groups of students (from 20 to 200). Seminars and tutorials are much smaller than lecture classes and in some departments can be on a one-to-one basis - one member of staff and one student.

Do students in Britain prepare work in advance?

Yes, as far as I know, students in Britain prepare work in advance for seminars and tutorials. And this can take the form of researching a topic for discussion by writing essays or by solving problems.

How long do seminars and tutorials last?

Lectures, seminars and tutorials are all one hour in length, laboratory classes last two or three hours.

Do students in Britain have supervisors?

In Britain much emphasis is put on the private study nature of a degree. Each student has a tutor whom he can consult on any matter whether academic or personal. The teaching encourages students to learn in the most effective way.

What terms is the academic year split into?

The academic year is split into three terms. Formal teaching takes place in the first two terms which last for twenty four weeks in total. The third term is reserved for classes and examinations and lasts for six weeks.

How long must a student study to take a UK degree!

University degree courses extend from three to four years. After three years of study a university graduate will leave with the Degree of Bachelor of Arts or Science. He can continue to take his Master's Degree and then the Doctor's Degree.

Do many British go on to higher education?

Several important social developments that occurred in the decades after World War II renewed the vigour of the young to study at the universities. The rising standard of education became especially evident, as the number of pupils going on to higher education increased dramatically after World War II and was matched by a major expansion in the number of universities and other institutions of higher education.

Is education important for Americans?

Americans place a high value on education. Universal access to quality education has been one of the nation's historic goals.

When did Americans start to place emphasis upon education?

From the first years of their colonial life Americans placed great emphasis upon education. In the seventeenth century the colonies made elementary schooling compulsory. Grammar schools and academies flourished. America's first college, Harvard was founded in 1636. Harvard with a library of five thousand volumes, and good scientific apparatus, and the classics lagged little behind the best European universities in the 18th century. A number of colleges were founded in the middle and lower colonies -which trained Thomas Jefferson and many other public figures. The College of Philadelphia was set up by Benjamin Franklin in 1755. In 1865 education was becoming available to all.

What is a peculiar feature of American education?

The peculiar feature of American education is the absence of national administration. Each of the 50 states controls and directs its own schools. Most states require that children attend schools from the time they reach six or seven years old until they are sixteen or seventeen.

Is there any uniform school organization or curriculum throughout the nation?

There is no uniform school organization or curriculum throughout the nation. But certain common features exist.

What are they?

Pre-school education is part of. the elementary schools. Elementary and secondary schools consist of twelve years of classes. Almost every elementary school curriculum includes English, mathematics, science, social studies, music, art and physical education. Many schools include classes teaching basic computer skills.

What do Americans do after finishing secondary school?

As far as I know, they enter colleges or universities. There are a lot of technical training schools, community colleges; colleges offering four-year bachelor degree programmes; and universities which contain one or more colleges and graduate schools offering master's or doctoral degree programmes in the USA.

What factors determine the college or university prestige?

The factors determining an institution's prestige are the quality of the teaching faculty; quality of research facilities; the number and competence of applicants for admission.

What do you know about University education in the USA?

There is no National University in the USA. Each state controls and supports at least one University. The National Government gives no direct financial aid to them.

Do Americans go to the University free of charge?

The students do not go to the University free of charge. Everyone must pay a tuition fee. The amount varies from state to state. Students' total expenses throughout the year are very high. And though each University offers a number of scholarships many students have to work to pay their expenses.

Do most of the US Universities have a campus?

Most of the US Universities have a central campus. Colleges of Law, Business, Medicine, Engineering, Music, Journalism can be found on one campus.

Do the US students take the same courses?

No, they do not. The students do not take the same courses. They attend courses at various colleges. During the first two years they follow a basic programme. It means that every student must select at least one course from each of the basic fields of study: English, science, modern languages, history or physical education. After the first two years every student majors in one subject and minors in another. A student can major in history and minor in sociality. In addition to these major and minor courses he can select other subjects according to his professional interest.

When do the US students receive degrees?

After completing four years of study the students receive a Bachelor's Degree (either BA or B.Sc.). With an additional year of study one may get a Master's Degree and after two or three years of graduate work and writing of the dissertation it is possible to obtain a Doctoral degree.

When do the US students take their exams?

Over four years at the end of each year students have a final written examination. They take oral exams and write a dissertation only for advanced degrees.

Is learning important for society?

Certainly. The idea that a well-schooled society is a prosperous and stable society, and therefore that educated people is a desirable goal for a nation, dates back to the year 2500 BC. In his «Great Learning» Confucius wrote: «When knowledge is extended, the will becomes sincere. When the will is sincere, the mind is correct. When the mind is correct, the self is cultivated. When the self is cultivated the clan is harmonized. When the clan is harmonized the country is well governed. When the country is well governed there will be peace throughout the land.» Thus education is the pledge of peace. Peace is important for people to be happy.

I WANT TO BE A TEACHER

There are many interesting and useful professions but I like the profession of a teacher.

I began to think about my future profession at the age of 14. I was born in the family of a teacher. My mother is a teacher, and I like this profession, too.

When I was a little girl, I went to school with my mother attending her lessons.

I saw my mother at the lessons, I watched her and I wanted my mother to be a favourite teacher for the pupils.

Once our English teacher caught cold. I was in the 9th form and was fond of English.

The head teacher asked me to give an English lesson in the 5th form. I entered the classroom, saw many pupils, sitting at their desks, and said, "Good morning" and began the lesson.

I wanted the pupils to like English. We read, wrote, sang songs, asked and answered questions. I gave English lessons several times and I was glad teaching the pupils when the teacher was absent.

Now I know well what I am going to do after leaving school. I want to be a teacher of English. It is a very interesting and difficult profession. It is interesting because you work with the pupils, with the personalities. It is difficult because you have to teach them a foreign language.

To be a good teacher means to be a highly educated person and to know a lot. Every day I improve my English, reading books, translating sentences from Russian into English, reading English newspapers, looking through magazines and sometimes speaking with Englishmen.

I am fond of English and I want to be a skilled teacher.

I HAVE A DREAM TO BE A DOCTOR

There are many interesting and noble professions. I want to become a doctor.

I like this profession and I am eager to get a medical education and work at a hospital.

It is a good tradition in our family. My mother is a doctor, my grandfather is a doctor and I want to be a doctor, too.

When I was a little boy my grandfather worked at a hospital and I spent some time at the hospital with him. He is a surgeon and works in a surgical department.

Day by day he takes care of his hospital patients, he treats them well. He is very attentive. Every day he comes in towards asking patients, "What do you complain of?"

He wants all people to be able-bodied and he tries to treat his in-patients in a proper way.

To operate on persons is his main task. He is a kind and skilled surgeon.

Every day he comes into an operating-room and operates on his in-patients. After each operation he takes care of his in-patients. Day by day he helps them to recover and he is glad when he can say, "My in-patient is quite recovered."

Sometimes he advises his in-patients to go to sanatoriums after leaving the hospital. He instructs them in detail what they can do and eat after their operations.

My grandfather tells me a lot of true stories about doctors, their profession, their aid for people.

I respect my grandfather. I like his profession and I have a dream to be a doctor too.

7. Sports and healthy lifestyle

What role does sport play in your life?

Although I do not go in for sports, I am fond of such activities that allow me to keep fit at home. I start with running then I take exercise programmes.

Do your friends go in for sports?

Some of them go in for sports and sports activities such as swimming, skiing, playing badminton, ice hockey, football or basketball. Unfortunately, public sports facilities are not always available to my friends, and they are engaged into outdoor activities. Most of them prefer running. They put on the white 'trainer' shoes and tracksuits and run through the parks or along the streets for half an hour a day.

Do secondary schools officials pay attention to sports?

Russian schools use sports activities as a way of teaching social values. Among these are teamwork and sportsmanship. The average secondary school offers its pupils such sports as football, basketball, track-and-field. Being intelligent and being good in sports are regarded as an ideal.

Do you often attend a swimming pool?

I enjoy swimming that is why twice a week I go to the swimming pool in autumn, winter and spring. In summer I swim in the lakes and rivers. But most of all I like to swim in the Black sea.

Is the healthy life-style popular in Russia?

Yes, certainly. Today everybody wants to be fit, feel good, look slim and stay young. Everyone who wants can participate in sports activities in our country. Many fitness clubs and public leisure centres have been built during the past years. These modern centres with their swimming pools, squash courts, gym and indoor courts for tennis are competing with cinemas and theatres as places for people to go to spend their leisure time. There one can find a leisure pool with a wave machine, water slides and tropical plants Families can spend their holidays at huge indoor water parks. In such pools people in the main splash and not swim.

What do you know about sports in foreign countries?

Nowadays sports and activities are fashionable in Europe and America. For example, popular marathons are now held everywhere. Lots of people want to see if they can run 42 kms and do it faster than everyone else. The big city marathons, in London and New York, are important sporting events. Television cameras and newspapers report them in detail. According to the latest figures the most popular sports in Europe and America are walking, cycling, jogging, playing football and golf. Other popular sports are bowling, badminton, tennis. Experts are asking a very important question: should sports be taken seriously or should it be just for fun?

What do you think about it?

I think, it depends upon the people's choice. Some people want to go in for sports seriously, others consider it to be a way to keep fit.

What sports are British fond of?

Sports play an important part in the life of the English people. All sports are very popular among them. The national British sports are: football, golf, cricket, table tennis, lawn tennis, snooker, steeplechase, racing, darts. The British are fond of football which is of two kinds there: association football (soccer) and rugby. Englishmen like all kinds of racing. Horse-racing, motor-car racing, boat-racing, dog-racing, donkey-racing are very popular in England.

What sports are popular in American?

Such sports as hockey, soccer, weightlifting, track and field, tennis, rowing, wrestling, golf, basketball, volleyball, boxing, figure-skating, cross-country skiing, swimming, judo and shooting are popular in the USA. The variety and size of the country, its different climates and the people's love of competitions of any type can explain the large choice of sports in America. The most recent unusual sport that first reached popularity in the USA is triathlon. It includes swimming, bicycle racing and long-distance running and is becoming more and more popular in Europe.

What do you know about the Olympic games?

The history of the Olympic games dates back to Ancient Greece. According to the legend Hercules was the founder of the first Olympic Games. An athletic festival with competitions in music and poetry began to attract the Greeks in the 8th century. The year 776 BC was established by history as the first date of the recorded Olympiad. The Olympic Games were held every five years. People dated events by the Olympiads throughout ancient period. The athletes competed in running, boxing, wrestling, horse and chariot racing. The winners were given laurel wreaths. According to the rules established at Olympia all hostilities between warring states ceased for the duration of the Olympiad. The truce was universally respected and no Greek state could break it. In the course of time the festival became so popular that not only athletes competed for the crown of wild olive but artists, poets, philosophers, orators and historians, were trying to create immortal works dedicated to the unity and splendour of Hellenic civilization. The prestige and brilliance of the Olympic Games was so great that other panhellenic festivals were instituted two centuries later - the Pythian (590 BC), the Isthmian (580 BC), the Nemean (573 BC), in honour of Apollo, Poseidon and Zeus respectively. The Olympic Games were held for nearly twelve centuries and were abolished in 394 AD by Theodosius I, the Christian Emperor, on the ground of their pagan origin. At the end of the 19-th century Baron Pierre de Coubertin revived them. In 1894 he addressed the International Congress of Athletes emphasizing the importance of sports in the peoples' life. The first modem Olympic Games were held in Athens in 1896 to signify the succession of the tradition. Since then the Games have been regularly held in different countries of the world.

What body controls the programme of the Olympic games?

The International Olympic Committee is responsible for the programme, the number of the participants and the city-host for the Games.

When did Russia join the Olympic movement?

Our country first participated in the 1952 Summer and 1956 Winter Olympic Games. The achievements of our athletes in the Olympic Games were a source of great national pride. Although athletes were technically amateurs, they were well supported by the Sports State Committee. In ice hockey, volleyball, basketball, gymnastics, track-and-field athletes, weight lifting, wrestling, and boxing our country was among the best in the world. At the 1992 Barcelona Olympics the team of our country won 45 gold medals.

Sport is very important in our life. It is popular among young and old people.

Many people do morning exercises, jog in the morning, train themselves in clubs, in different sections and take part in sport competitions.

Other people like sports too, but they only watch sports games, listen to sports news. They prefer reading interesting stories about sportsmen. But they don't go in for sports.

Physical training is an important subject at school. Pupils have got physical training lessons twice a week. Boys and girls play volley-ball and basket-ball at the lessons. There is a sports ground near our school and school-children go in for sports in the open air.

A lot of different competitions are held at schools, a great number of pupils take part in them. All participants try to get good results and become winners. Sport helps people to keep in good health. If you go in for sports, you have good health and don't catch cold.

Children and grown-ups must take care of their health and do morning exercises regularly.

There are some popular kinds of sports in our country: football, volley-ball, hockey, gymnastics, skiing, skating. Athletics is one of the most popular kinds of sports. It includes such kinds of sports as running, jumping and others. Everybody may choose the sport he (or she) is interested in.

There are summer and winter sports.

My favourite sport is swimming. I go to the swimming-pool twice a week. But I prefer to rest by the lake or the river and swim there.

My friend Kostya goes in for boxing, He is a good boxer and he is a brave and courageous boy. His hobby helps him in his everyday life.

We must speak about the Highland Games in Scotland. All competitors wear Highland dress. There are such competitions as putting the weight, tossing the caber and others. The English are great lovers of sports.

8. Learning foreign languages

“Proper education”

Defining the "educated man or woman" is very difficult to do. However, most would agree that the knowledge of at least one language would surely be an important item on the list. If wе review the history of the study of languages, we find that the study of Latin and Greek was, for many centuries, necessary for any scholar. As late as the middle of the 19th century, an educated person could read in their original form the works of great writers and thinkers, both ecclesiastical and secular.

By the later part of the 19th century, individual disciplines such as chemistry, botany, and geology began tо evolve. Specialization in particular fields, including modern languages such as French and German, became necessary, because it was no longer possible for an individual to be well read in many subject areas and stay current on rapid developments in industry, science, and medicine.

The study of European languages is considered as part of а classic education. One could read and approach the literature, art, and architectural heritage of Europe more closely with an appreciation for, if not fluency in, one of the European languages. To have been exposed to foreign languages is a hallmark of good scholarship and a “proper education”.

A bridge to understanding

Language displays а culture. When you study another language, you gain the understanding of language, not only the one being learned, but also of your own. Foreign language study brings home the impact, the sensitivity, and the limitations of our native language. It teaches volumes about the culture that uses the language being studied. Developing an understanding of а simple phrase in another language can explode the imagination. No mere translation will be able tо convey the true meaning of the phrase you understand in its original expression.

In examining the Eskimo language, you'll find just one word for а motorized vehicle, meaning both an automobile and а motorcycle. You cannot distinguish between the two different machines by vocabulary, because historically the Eskimo culture was seldom confronted with motorized vehicles. On the other hand, these people, who live in what others see as an almost monochromatic world of icе, have а multitude of words for snow. Wet snow, big snowflakes, dry dusty snow, intermittent spitting snow, snow that falls so fast there is no visibility — all have a term.

Americans are sometimes referred tо as being culturally isolated, but, like many blanket statements, this simply is not accurate. The United States is made up of citizens from countless nations, many of whom continue tо speak their native language in the home and with friends. There are even communities of native speakers, so you might find а large cluster of Koreans in Los Angeles and an equally dense population of Cambodians in Lowell, Massachusetts. Americans are, in fact, а polyglot nation. American so-called English language is also interwoven with non-English words. Dungarees is an Indian word; kindergarten is а German word. A great number of French words is also used: croissant, esprit de corps, mattre d'hotel, hors d oeuvres, chateaubriand. However, it is true that Americans do not have а good reputation for learning foreign languages. This is largely due to the country’s physical isolation. Europian and Asian countries, which are in close proximity tо other countries, are multi-linguistic. Add tо that the growing dominance of English in international business, and some Americans can justifiably feel less urgency about learning а foreign language. No matter where an American goes, he thinks that somebody who can speak some English will always be right around the corner.

Foreign languages are useful and needed

The exciting fact is that foreign language study is needed now more than ever. For both the students and the teachers of foreign languages comes the bonus that experiencing the language, using the language, and hearing and seeing it used are no longer confined tо the classroom. Nor does it take а trip abroad. The world has grown closer and smaller, and that makes learning а language not just more meaningful, but also imperative.

The need for foreign language skills confronts you daily. In the political arena, world leaders often cannot retire alone tо discuss important matters face tо face and confidentially; interpreters must relay their communications. In equally significant arenas of economics, joint military operations, medicine, and science, global sharing is imperative and can be seriously impeded by the need for translation services. Each day the world community becomes ever more entwined in economic, political, social, and military combinations of states and countries. Our stores are filled with products from around the world, many in the original packaging. Our cities abound with restaurants, coffee houses, newspapers, radio and TV stations, and social centers for groups that are built around other languages. With so many examples of cultural interchange it’s easy to see why the knowledge of foreign languages is so vital.

With shared language, we reach across enormous cultural boundaries. It is certainly а skill and an art that are well worth the many hours оf study, language lab practice, travel, and reading tо attain.

The Future: A Must for Our World Community

Learning someone else's language is nо longer some personal cultural adornment, but rather а signal of membership in and stewardship of the world community. The ground is shifting under our feet, and we will continue tо see dramatic changes in the numbers of people learning foreign languages, in the use of and exposure to foreign languages.

Ultimately, we need tо make the individual connections, whether it is two powerful leaders adjourning for some private conversation or а tourist and native sharing а cup of tea together. Each will find differences really not so vast as we once supposed when communication was obscured by the veil of а language we did not understand. The arenas may change; they may be political, social, economic, military, artistic, educational, or recreational, but the underlying need for individuals tо understand each other does not change. Nothing can make those connections faster or more human than sharing а common language.

It is necessary to learn foreign languages. That's why pupils have got such subject as a foreign language at school. Everybody knows his own language, but it is useful to know foreign languages.

I learn English, because I understand that I can use it. For example, if I go to England I'll be able to speak English there. If I go to the USA, I'll speak English too. English is used not only in England, but also in other parts of the world.

I learn English because I want to read foreign literature in the original. I know and like such English and American writers as Charles Dickens, Mark Twain, Lewis Carroll and others. I understand that I must learn English. If I know English well, I'll be able to go to the library and take books by English and American writers in the original.

I like to travel. But it is difficult to visit countries, when you don't know the language of these countries. If I know the language of the country, where I am going to, it will be easy to travel there. If I want to ask something, I can do it in English.

I like to read books. And I like to read newspapers, too. If I know, for example, English I'll be able to read English newspapers and magazines. Knowledge of foreign languages helps young people of different countries to understand each other, to develop friendship among them. For example, we have a foreign exhibition in Moscow. If I know a foreign language, it is easy for me to visit this exhibition. 

You can see a lot of advertisements, signboards, names in the streets. They are in foreign languages. Very often they are in English. If you know English, you can read and understand them. 

Now we buy many clothes from other countries. If you know English well, you can read something about the size of this or that thing. It is clear for you what it is made of. 

There are a lot of films in foreign languages. If you know foreign languages, you can understand films without any help. There are international friendship camps in the world. If you can speak foreign languages, it will be easy for you to visit such camps and speak with the boys, girls, men even they don't know Russian. 

In short, I understand that I have to learn English in a proper way and I try to do it.

9. Travelling

Do you like to travel?

Yes, I do. Besides, I want to say that I can not imagine my life without travelling. Modern means of communication make the world a small place. Now it is possible to visit many countries and meet people of all nations. Today travelling is a way of life for some people. Moreover, in the past travelling was a specific driving force of human development. For example, the rudiments of mathematics were brought to Europe from Bagdad in the 13th century. In the past travelling was extremely dangerous, but it did not stop explorers to investigate our planet.

Do you travel much?

No, to my regret I do not travel much. Although I am fond of seeing new places and meeting different people, I can do it only once a year.

What countries have you visited?

I have visited Great Britain.

When did you visit Great Britain?

I visited Great Britain last year.

What can you tell us about your journey?

Last summer my classmates and I went to Great Britain for a holiday. We lived in the host-families in the suburbs of London. We went to London every day by the 12 o'clock train. We didn't go to England only for pleasure. We were learning English there. We had classes of English five days a week three hours a day. Our English teacher gave us classes of English at school. And when the classes were over her assistant took us round London and showed us the sights.

Did you see a lot of places of interest?

We took most of our stay there. We had never been to London before, but we knew a lot about its places of interest such as the National Gallery, the Tate Gallery, the Tower of London, the Houses of Parliament, Nelson's Column.

What impressed you most of all there in London?

I was greatly impressed by Changing the Guard. It is London's most popular spectacle. It takes place in the forecourt of Buckingham and lasts about 30 minutes. Every day a lot of people come to the palace to see it.

What did do at the weekends?

At the weekends we were looking around all day long. We went to Hampton Court, the residence of Henry VIII, Windsor Castle, the residence of Elizabeth II. We went to Rochester. There we visited Dickens's museum and a medieval castle. I was greatly impressed by Hampton Court. Henry VIII liked his palace on the Thames very much. We also could feel its beauty as we walked around the magnificent building. Every corner captured our hearts. Beneath the colonnade in Clock Court was the entrance to the king's apartments, restored to their full glory after the fire of 1986. History was vividly seen there.

What other London places of interest did you like?

I liked the Tower of London and St Paul's Cathedral.

What do you know about them?

St. Paul's Cathedral is Sir Christopher Wren's masterpiece. The construction of the Cathedral lasted for 34 years. It is crowned by the dome. Inside the Dome are scenes from the life of St. Paul. Here too is the famous Whispering Gallery. There are many memorials in the Cathedral including those to the heroes such as Wellington and Nelson. As for the Tower of London, it is connected with many important events in English history. It has served as citadel, palace, prison, mint, menagerie. Now it is a museum. The White Tower was built in 1078 by William the Conqueror to protect the city. The Tower is famous for its illustrious prisoners. Many great people lost their heads on the executioner's block. The Tower is guarded by the Yeoman Warders popularly known as 'Beefeaters', clad in their traditional Tudor uniforms.

What do you know about British cultural life?

I can make some general comments on British cultural life. First of all I want to say that English culture, enriched by the contributions of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, dominates in the cultural life of the United Kingdom. Widespread changes in the United Kingdom's cultural life occurred after 1945. The most remarkable was perhaps the emergence first of Liverpool and then of London in the 1960s as the world centres of popular culture. The «Beatles» were only the first and best-known of the many British rock music groups to win the world. British clothing designers for a time led the world as innovators of new styles of dress for both men and women, and the brightly coloured outfits sold in Carnaby Street and King's Road shops briefly became symbols of Britain.

Does the British government support the arts?

As far as I know, during the postwar period, successive governments shifted their policies toward the arts. The independent Arts Council, formed in 1946, supports many kinds of contemporary creative and performing arts. This support has supplemented the great expansion of the cultural market, mainly commercial, and of audiences and viewers for the arts generally.

Were you happy there in London?

Yes, of course. I was very happy there. I liked my host-family very much.

What are usual meals in England?

The usual meals in England are breakfast, lunch, tea and dinner. Breakfast is generally a bigger meal than that on the Continent, though some English prefer a continental breakfast of rolls, butter and coffee. It is said that the traditional English breakfast is porridge. But it is not so. They do not like porridge. They think that their guests from the Continent like it and serve it to them every morning. English people like corn flakes or cereals with milk and honey, bacon and eggs, marmalade with buttered toast, and tea or coffee.

What do English people have for lunch?

They have lunch at one o'clock. At lunch time in a London cafe or restaurant it is possible to find a mutton chop, or steak and chips, fish and chips, and something of the like, then a fruit to follow.

Do all English have their famous five o'clock tea?

No, not all of them. It is the privilege of the conference participants or the representatives of some leisure classes who take it as a kind of social activity with a chat and a cup of tea with pastries or a cake.

What do English have for dinner?

Dinner time throughout England is seven o'clock p.m. For some families dinner is the biggest meal of the day. But for others midday meal is the chief one of the day while in the evening they have a much simpler supper - an omelette, or sausages, or a glass of milk.

Is British food specific?

Previously everything people ate was home-made, and prepared in the traditional way. Nowadays produced food is replacing the slow, careful preparation of fresh vegetables and other ingredients. Canteens, cafeterias and even many restaurants serve course meals instead of individually prepared dishes for each customer. As far as I know British restaurants have not always been famous for their good food. Too often they offered fried food and chips with everything. But now healthy food is in fashion and so is international cooking.

Where have the British taken food ideas from?

The British have taken food ideas from all over the world. They can eat Chinese, Indian, French, Italian and Greek food in any big city, and in London there is a fantastic variety of restaurants.

Do the British often go to the restaurants?

Most British families go to the restaurants only on special occasions, like birthdays, or wedding anniversaries. The restaurant's best customers are business people, who meet in them to talk business in a relaxed atmosphere away from the telephone. For visitors to London, eating out can be fun. In some restaurants the menu and decor are just like they were in Queen Victoria's day, a hundred years ago.

Where can visitors to London go to have special London feeling?

If visitors to London want special London feeling, they should go to the «Ritz» in Piccadilly for tea any afternoon at about half past four. Or they can try England's favourite food - chips and fish. They can take it away and eat where they like - in the park, on the bus or while walking down the street. That's what Londoners do!

Have you ever travelled by air?

Yes, I have. It happened a year ago when we went to Great Britain. We got to London by air. On the appointed day we went to the airport by car. Soon we boarded the big air-liner. When we took off the voice informed us about the altitude we were flying. The flight took us more than three hours. Time passed quickly. The plane arrived at the airport in time.

Have you ever used any other way of travelling?

Certainly. There are different ways of travelling. I have travelled by train, car, and boat. When I travelled by car or train a blurred image of the countryside always smeared the window. It is a peculiar feature of our time not to use legs but to move about in cars, trains, jets, from a very early age. Today people travel hundred of miles every day.

What kind of travelling do your parents prefer?

My parents prefer to travel by coach, that is why of all the available tours they choose coach tours. Such tours are not expensive and my parents like them very much. Coach tours give a chance to do a lot of sightseeing and have a good rest at the same time. Last year my parents bought a coach tour. They enjoyed the tour very much. During the ten-day holiday they visited Germany, the Netherlands and France. There was no trouble with the luggage because it was taken care of at every night stop. Moreover hotels were carefully selected and booked in advance. My parents recollect this tour even a year later.

What role does tourism play in the present day society?

I think, it is very useful to visit different countries and get familiar with different cultures. People today are travelling far more than they ever used to. Some people think that tourists damage either the districts or cultural and historical places they visit. Certainly, it is a sufficient reason for tourism to be stopped. Others consider that today tourism has been elevated to a kind of religious ritual which is gradually exhausting our planet. Moreover, when people travel at high speeds they live in the future because they spend most of their time awaiting the arrival at some other place, and the present stops to be a reality. One should remember that travelling at high speed is a means not an end in itself.

Did people travel much in the historical past?

In the past people did not travel so much as we do today. Tourism is the phenomenon of the 20th century. In the past people set sail in search of new land and trade routes. The period of extensive travelling in called the Age of Discovery.

Is it possible to date the beginning of the Age of Discovery?

Some historians think that the Age of Discovery, which opened the world to European shipping, began around 1419 when Portugal's Prince Henry, known as «the Navigator», established a maritime training centre on his country's Atlantic coast.

What were the consequences of the Age of Discovery for the peoples of Africa?

They were disastrous. Africa had a slave trade. In 1434 Portuguese adventurers brought the first black slaves to Lisbon. As Europe's transatlantic colonies grew in importance, so did the need for manual labour. It is supposed that as many as 10 million slaves were transported to the New World, perhaps 5 million of them in the 18th century. Nearly two million more died aboard the crowded prison ships that carried slaves to work the sugar fields of the Caribbean or the cotton plantations of the American South.

Was the Age of Discovery damaging to the New World?

Native Americans were victimized by colonialism: millions died of imported diseases like smallpox, which their immune systems could not handle. The conquistadors ruthlessly suppressed the cultures of Aztecs of Mexico and Incas of Peru.

Did the cultures of the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru give anything to the world?

They made a lasting and invaluable contribution to world cuisine. Tomatoes, potatoes, corn and peppers, tobacco, and many other delicacies, came to us from the New World.

What do you know about the native inhabitants of the New World?

Before Columbus set foot on the shores of the New World on 12 October 1492, the Mayans lived around the great cities and temples their ancestors had built in the south-eastern Mexico. It is a well established fact that the Maya civilization reached its zenith during the Classical period, from about AD 250 to 900. After AD 900 it began to decay, perhaps owing to stresses in the social structure, overpopulation, and deforestation." A number of important cities emerged in the late Classic period. The inhabitants of the cities were building striking stone architectural monuments, but their scientific and artistic achievements were not remarkable. Their economies remained underdeveloped. By the time of the Spanish conquest, the Maya civilization was in decline, yet they resisted subjugation longer than either the Aztecs of Mexico or the Incas of Peru. Spain ruled Central America for about 300 years. The Mayans maintained their autonomy only 1697. Unfortunately, disease and the social disruption brought with the Spanish conquest annihilated a large part of the native population during the 16th century.

I LIKE TO TRAVEL

I like to travel. First of all, the members of our family usually have long walks in the country. Such walks are called hikes. If we want to see the countryside, we have to spend a part of our summer holidays on hikes. It is useful for all members of our family. We take our rucksacks, we don't think about tickets, we don't hurry up and we walk a lot. During such hikes we see a lot of interesting places, sometimes we meet interesting people.

I like to travel by car. It is interesting too, because you can see many things in a short time. When we go by car, we don't take tickets too, we put all things we need in a car. We don't carry them.

It is comfortable to travel by train and by plane. When I travel by plane, I don't spend a lot of time going from one place to another. But it is difficult to buy tickets for the plane. That's why we take our tickets beforehand. If I travel by train or by plane my friends see me off at the rail-way station or in the airport. Sometimes we go to the seaside for a few days. As usual the weather is fine. It is warm, we can swim. It is a pleasure to watch white ships.

I think that travelling is a very useful thing for us and I enjoy all kinds of travelling very much.

TRAVELLING BY SEA

Almost all people like to travel. When you have got holidays you can travel by car, by train, by plane and by sea.

I like to travel by sea best of all. Some years ago we took a cruise along the Black Sea coast on board the liner "Russia". We came to Sochi by train. Then we went to the seaport and saw our ship. It was big. We liked it very much. I remember the ship and our cabin. Our cabin was comfortable. It had got two berths, a table two chairs and one wide window and the warm wind was blowing through it. There was fresh air in our cabin during all the voyage. We had breakfast, dinner and supper on board the ship. When it was time to have meals we went to the restaurant.

The weather was fine. After breakfast we spent a lot of time on the deck sitting in deck chairs or standing at the rail, watching the ships, passing not far from our ship. It was pleasant to watch the waves too.

I remember the sunrise and the sunset well. It was unforgettable. In the afternoon I took a sunshade because the sun was shining brightly. It was hot in the sunshine.

In the daytime we liked to watch the sea-scape. At four o'clock we entered the port Adler. There were some ships there. We saw many people on the pier. We had some free time in Adler and we went for a walk while the ship was in the port. The water was clean and it was pleasant to swim in the sea. I like the Caucasus and that's why I was pleased.

At 8 o'clock we came back. The liner was going to sail off. In the evening we patched TV, danced or stayed on the deck when the weather was fine.

I enjoyed my trip. This voyage impressed me for all my life.

10. Environmental protection

Is the problem of environmental protection urgent today?

Yes, the problem of protecting the nature is of primary importance today. Through their daily activities people pollute and contaminate land, water and air. If it continues the damage may become irreversible. It is known far and wide that pollution has ac companied mankind ever since groups of people first assembled and remained for a long time in one place. But pollution was not a serious problem as long as there was enough space available for each individual or group. With the establishment of permanent human settlements pollution became a problem and has remained one ever since. With the rise of advanced technology, the rapid spread of industrialization and the increase of human populations pollution has become a universal problem. The price for rapid industrial development is very high: natural resources are exhausted, the ecological balance of the planet is disturbed.

How is the environmental protection problem solved today?

In recent years the pollution problems have received great publicity. The environmental movement associated with no political party has gained widespread trust and support. Environmental activists stress that the problem is caused by industrial pollution and the automobile. The media's begun to campaign against the ugliness of billboards, tin cans and trash. The protection of natural resources and wildlife is becoming a political programme in every country. Numerous anti-pollution acts passed in different countries led to considerable improvements in environment. In many countries purifying systems for treatment of industrial waters have been installed, measures have been taken to protect rivers and seas from oil waters.

What are the main problems of today?

Cleaning up air pollution is one of the main problems of to day. Urban air pollution continues to expand as a result of the in creased number of motor vehicles. Exhaust fumes from the engines of automobiles contain a number of polluting substances. Tokyo has such a serious air-pollution problem that oxygen is supplied to policemen who direct traffic at busy intersections. Milan, Ankara, Mexico City, and Buenos Aires face similar problems.

Is acid rain damaging to nature?

One of the climatic effects of air pollution is acid rain. It is damaging to water, forest, and soil resources. It is blamed for the disappearance of fish from many lakes, for the widespread death of forests in European mountains, and for damaging tree growth in the United States and Canada. Acid rain has been reported in areas as far apart as Sweden and Canada, and in parts of the United States from New England to Texas.

Does radioactive contamination of environment worry people?

People also concern over the dangers resulting from massive releases of radioactive materials from nuclear weapons, which, if used on a major scale, could seriously endanger all of humanity. Another concern is accidents at nuclear power plants. In 1978 a nuclear power plant in Pennsylvania suffered a severe accident leading to partial meltdown of its radioactive core. In 1986 the Chernobyl nuclear power plant near Kiev suffered a fire and partial meltdown, resulting in a major release of radioactive particles. Much of northern and eastern Europe experienced heavy nuclear fallout. The runoff from broken-down tanks is the source of organic pollutants. Indus tries located along waterways downstream contribute a number of chemical pollutants, some of which are toxic. One form of pollution that is characteristic of industrial societies is noise.

What can people do to stop pollution?

Attempts to control pollution, initiated during the 1950s, resulted in the successful elimination of such sources of pollution as industrial effluents and the outdoor burning of trash and debris. The task of cleaning up air pollution, though difficult, is not believed to be impossible. Use of fuels that are low in pollutants; more complete burning of fossil fuels; the scrubbing of industrial smokestacks often in combination with a recycling of the pollutants; and the shift to less polluting forms of power generation, such as solar energy in place of fossil fuels - all are methods that can be used for controlling pollution. Many large cities have taken measures to decrease the level of urban noise; the problem has received much attention with the ad vent of supersonic jet aeroplanes. In 1971 the U.S. Congress voted down appropriations to support the development of supersonic transport (SST) planes. Atmospheric testing of nuclear bombs was stopped in different countries to prevent radioactive contamination of the atmosphere. In 1990 the British government committed itself to a 30 per cent reduction in carbon dioxide emission by the year 2005.

What can common people do to protect nature!

To protect nature people should change their attitude to it. Man should stop taking from it everything he needs and give it his love instead. Otherwise the payoff will be too high. It is good that at last people started to realize that they should keep air and water clean by establishing strict pollution control. Efforts are being made to reduce pollution from automobile engines by developing pollution-free engines which may eventually eliminate the more serious air pollution problems. Moreover, the strong public reaction can facilitate the exercise of absolute pollution control in various contamination industries.

Our country. Our environment. There are many big and small rivers, green forests, high mountains, lakes and seas in Russia.

Our Earth is our home. I think people must take care of our Motherland.

There are some laws and decisions on this important subject. We have state organizations which pay attention to this problem.

The international conventions pay much attention to the control of pollution too.

There are a lot of industrial enterprises in our country, that's why we can't ignore the problem of the protection of our environment. Our main aim is the protection.

Our environment must be clean. What must we do for it? We have to control atmospheric and water pollution, to study the man's influence on the climate. The pollution of the environment influences the life of animals, plants and our human life. If we don't use chemicals in a proper way we'll pollute our environment.

Our plants and factories put their waste materials into water and atmosphere and pollute the environment.

There are many kinds of transport in our big cities, that's why we must pay attention to the protection of our nature and the health of the people.

Radiation. Now it has become one of the main problems. It is not good for health of people. Many people died from radiation some years ago in Chernobyl. It was a tragedy. Another problem is earthquake. We know some terrible earthquakes in the world. Our scientists try to forecast earthquakes, then we can protect ourselves from them.

The people all over the world do everything to protect their nature, to make their country richer, to make their life happier.

11. Holidays and traditions in Russia and in English-speaking countries

MASLENITSA

There are many holidays and traditions in Russia. One of them is Maslenitsa. This holiday lasts for a week. Russian people celebrate it at the end of February or at the beginning of March. They say "goodbye" to winter on this holiday. During "Maslenitsa week" we always cook pancakes.

It is a tradition to cook pancakes and eat them with fish, sour cream, caviar, honey, sugar, butter. Our family likes to invite our friends to come to see us. We buy cakes, fruits, cook pancakes.

It is interesting to eat pancakes and to have a talk. During this holiday we celebrate the beginning of spring.

Usually this holiday is celebrated in our parks. People prepare fires and burn straw scarecrows of winter.

I like this gay Russian holiday, because I like to eat pancakes and I like spring.

THE 8th OF MARCH

There are many holidays in our country, the 8th of March is one of them.

It is a happy and nice holiday. It is a good tradition in our country to give presents and flowers to women on this day. Each family celebrates this spring holiday. In the morning men go to the shops or markets to buy some flowers. They try to clean flats and help women to cook a holiday dinner.

Sons and daughters help their mothers too: they make a cake, lay the table and wash dishes after holiday dinner.

All the members of the families try to be well dressed on this day.

Some families celebrate the 8th of March going to the theatres and concerts. They buy tickets beforehand.

Others prefer to invite guests and stay at home.

There is almost the same holiday in England. It is called Mothers' Day and celebrated also in spring. Sons and daughters come and give gifts to their mothers on this day.

If it is not possible to see a mother, one can send presents and cards to her. Flowers and cakes are the traditional gifts for all mothers in England. All women try to be nice and happy on this day.

MAY DAY

The 1st of May is a spring holiday in our country. Usually it is warm during this day. The weather is fine. The trees are green. You can see some flowers in the parks and gardens. I don't go to school and my parents don't go to work on the 1st of May.

We get up at 9 o'clock and we are in a good mood. Our relatives and friends ring us up and congratulate us.

Then we have our breakfast and go for a walk.

Our house is situated not far from the park. There is a beautiful pond with white swans swimming there.

If it doesn't rain we enjoy walking in the park.

Usually we invite our friends to our Place or come to see them ourselves. We have a holiday party in the evening. My mother makes a tasty cake and biscuits for it.

At 9 o'clock we see our friends off.

After that the members of our family usually watch TV or listen to music.

We like this holiday very much, because we can meet our friends, go to the theatre or simply have a good time at home.

This holiday is celebrated in England and in the USA too. Children dance around a maypole, leave small baskets of flowers at a friend's door.

ST. VALENTINE'S DAY

This holiday is celebrated on the 14th of February by the English and the Americans. It is not a national holiday. It is necessary to go to work, banks and offices do not close. It is a day of all lovers I think it is a happy festival for young people. But it is celebrated among persons of all ages. Valentine. What is it? It is a greeting card or a little present. The cards must be coloured and gay. It is possible to send flowers, cards and candy to those you love, but usually without giving the name of the sender.

Valentine presents are packed in red heart-shaped boxes. I think St. Valentine's Day is a great present-giving anniversary for adults as well as for children.

CHRISTMAS DAY

Every country has its own customs and traditions. English people are proud of their traditions and they keep them up.

It is difficult to speak about England without speaking about its holidays. Christmas Day is among them.

All English people celebrate Christmas (or X-mas) on the 25th of December.

Christmas! What kind of holiday is it? It is the yearly celebration of the birth of Jesus Christ. It falls on December 25 by the Catholic Church and on the 7th of January by the Orthodox Church. This holiday means the beginning of the new year and the new life. English people celebrate this holiday with the evergreen tree - Christmas tree. Children put a long sock, called a Christmas stocking at the end of their beds and Santa Claus comes down the chimney to bring them presents.

Christmas Day is the greatest holiday in England. It is interesting to visit the shops before this holiday. There are a lot of nice Christmas cards and presents there. English people like this holiday very much and prepare for it beforehand. They buy presents for each other, try to send Christmas cards for their relatives and friends.

It is interesting to visit London during this holiday. There is a Christmas tree in Trafalgar Square. We can see many lights, toys and sweets all over this tree. Everywhere you can see slogans "A Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year".

The traditional English dinner on Christmas is turkey and pudding.

NEW YEAR'S DAY

There are many holidays in our country. They are: New Year's Day, Christmas, Women's Day, Victory Day, May Day and others.

I like New Year's Day, it is my favourite holiday. The 1st of January is a winter holiday and now it is the first day of the New Year.

Peter the First changed the Russian calendar in 1699. He made the 31st of December, 1699 the last day of the year. The first of January 1700 became New Year's Day.

The 1st of January is in the middle of winter. The weather is usually fine and there is a lot of snow everywhere. As the 1st of January is a holiday I don't go to school and my parents don't go to work.

We usually have got a very interesting New Year's party at school. We have got it on the 28th or 29th of December.

Our family prepares for this holiday beforehand. My father buys and brings home a beautiful New Year's tree at the end of December. Our family has a tradition to buy it. I like to decorate the New Year's tree with toys, little coloured lights, sweets and a beautiful star on the top.

My mother and grandmother prepare our holiday supper and lay the table. I make a cake.

All the members of our family clean the flat before this nice holiday and then each of us try to dress well. We like to see the New Year in at home with our relatives. They come to see us at 11 o'clock in the evening.

At 12 o'clock we are sitting at the table and we are glad to see the New Year in. We say, "Best wishes for the New Year!"

I hope that next year will be better than the last one.

The New Year's Day is always connected with our new hopes and dreams.

It is a pleasant moment to get presents on the New Year's Eve. I usually get many nice useful things from my parents and relatives. My parents put their presents under the New Year's tree.

We don't go to bed till morning, we watch TV, dance, eat tasty things and make jokes.

I enjoy this holiday very much.

APRIL FOOL'S DAY

I like many holidays in Russia, for example I like April Fool's Day.

This holiday is celebrated as in Russia as in England.

It is a day for fun. It is celebrated on the 1st of April. We like to play jokes on the 1st of April. Our jokes are harmless and the victim of them is called an April fool. It is possible to play jokes on friends, parents, relatives. Sometimes we try to play jokes on our teachers if they have a sense of humour. We say that something is wrong with her hair-do when in fact all is in order. We can say that we are not ready for the lesson but then we read texts well and retell them in a proper way. Our jokes are silly and gay that's why the teachers are not angry.

I know that this holiday first appeared in France. Now it is a very popular holiday in many countries and April Fool's jokes are played as by children as by grown-ups.

I like this holiday because it is a gay one.

12. Outstanding people

Who glorified Russia?

Every country is proud of its outstanding people. Russia can be really proud of its great people. Russian scientists and inventors made a great contribution to the development of arts, science, technology, medicine. Their names are world-known. Almost in every field of human activity they achieved great results. M. Lomonosov was one of the most learned men in Europe. He was an outstanding innovator both in the humanities and sciences. He inspired the foundation of the first Russian University. Mendeleev's greatest discovery was the Periodic System of Elements. Russia is rightly called the mother of aviation and interplanetary navigation.

Who are you going to talk about?

I admire the achievements of the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Ivan Pavlov is known chiefly for his development of the concept of the conditioned reflex. In a now-classic experiment, Pavlov trained a hungry dog to salivate at the sound of a bell, which was previously associated with the sight of food. He developed a similar conceptual approach, emphasizing the importance of conditioning, in his pioneering studies relating human behaviour to the nervous system.

Was Pavlov's work appreciated?

Yes, certainly. Ivan Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize for physiology in 1904.

What do you know about Pavlov's early life?

Pavlov, the son of a priest, was born on September 14, 1849. He spent his youth in Ryazan. In 1870 he entered the University of St. Petersburg, where he studied chemistry and physiology. After receiving the M.D. at the Imperial Medical Academy in St. Peters burg, he studied in Germany. Pavlov's first independent research was on the physiology of the circulatory system. From 1888 to 1890 in St. Petersburg he investigated cardiac physiology and the regulation of blood pressure. In 1890 he became professor of physiology.

What law did Pavlov formulate?

Pavlov formulated the law of the conditioned reflex.

How long was the scientist occupied with the subject?

The subject occupied Pavlov's attention from about 1898 until 1930.

What did Pavlov try to explain with his law?

From about 1930 to 1936, Pavlov tried to apply his law to the explanation of human psychoses. During this period Pavlov announced the important principle of the language function in the human activity as based on long chains of conditioned reflexes involving words. The function of language involves not only words, he held, but an elaboration of generalizations. Pavlov's work laid the basis for the scientific analysis of behaviour.

Who else glorified Russia?

Tsiolkovsky did.

What is Konstantin Tsiolkovsky noted for?

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky is the father of rocket flying. He was among the first to work out the theoretical problems of rocket travel in space. He is the greatest Russian research scientist in aeronautics and astronautics who pioneered rocket and space re search and the development and use of wind tunnels for aerodynamic studies.

What family did Konstantin Tsiolkovsky come from?

Tsiolkovsky's father was a forestry official.

What event had an important impact on his early life?

At the age of nine Tsiolkovsky lost his hearing. He had to study at home. The boy became withdrawn and lonely, yet self- reliant. Books became his friends. He developed an interest in mathematics and physics and, while still a teenager, began to speculate on space travel.

Did Konstantin Tsiolkovsky study anywhere?

At 16 Konstantin Tsiolkovsky went to Moscow to study chemistry, mathematics, astronomy, and mechanics. Listening to the lectures with the aid of an ear trumpet, he expanded his grasp of the problems of flight. But in 1876 Tsiolkovsky's father called him home to Vyatka.

What did Tsiolkovsky do then?

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky passed the teachers examination and was assigned to a school in Borovsk, about 100 km from Moscow. There he began his teaching career. Then Tsiolkovsky was transferred to another teaching post in Kaluga

What did Konstantin Tsiolkovsky do in Kaluga besides teaching?

There in Kaluga Konstantin Tsiolkovsky carried out his re search in astronautics and aeronautics. While investigating aerodynamics, however, Tsiolkovsky began to devote more attention to space problems.

Did Konstantin Tsiolkovsky publish books and articles on the problems he studied?

In 1895 Tsiolkovsky's book «Dreams of Earth and Sky» was published, and in 1896 he published an article on communication with inhabitants of other planets. That same year he also began to write his largest and most serious work on astronautics. «Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices» dealt with theoretical problems of using rocket engines in space, including heat transfer, a navigating mechanism, heating resulting from air friction, and maintenance of fuel supply.

What did Konstantin Tsiolkovsky do later in life?

In the final 18 years of his life, Tsiolkovsky continued his re search on a wide variety of scientific problems. His contributions to stratospheric exploration and interplanetary flight were particularly noteworthy and played a significant role in contemporary astronautics. In 1919 Tsiolkovsky was elected to the Academy of Sciences.

Russia is proud of its outstanding painters. Who are going to talk about?

My talk is about Vassily Perov. He was the leader of the critical movement of the 1860s. In his paintings Perov expressed his protest against the unjustness of society. The son of a public prosecutor, Perov studied at Arzamas at the Art School of Alexander Stupin. During the 1850s Perov attended the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. Pavel Fedotov's domestic scenes, William Hogarth's pictorial satire and genre painting of the «Little masters» had a great influence on Perov. In his early works the artist criticized social behaviour. Perov's compositions show the painter's profound knowledge of the people's routine life. Perov reached the peak of his success as a genre painter in the later half of the 1860s.

Can you tell us about one of Perov's well-known works of art?

«The Last Inn at the City Gate» (or «The Last Pub») is considered to be one of the best art works of Russian painting. The artist depicts the city outskirts on a dark winter evening. A sledge in front of the inn, the sign «Parting», a girl in the cold street, the city gate with the Russian coats of arms and the road to nowhere - all these attain a symbolic meaning. The dark, muted colours convey the feeling of loneliness in the cold estranged world.

What other paintings were created by Perov?

Perov was the founding-member of the Wanderers. During the 1870s he created portraits of such outstanding Russian personalities as Alexander Ostrovsky and Fyodor Dostoevsky. Perov's genre paintings of the 1870s present a sympathetic and humorous, rather than tragic treatment of everyday life. The «Hunters Resting», of 1871, became one of the most popular Russian Realism canvases.

What trend did Perov turn to at the end of his career?

In his later life like other Wanderers, Perov turned to monumental historical paintings. «Nikita Pustosvyat. The Dispute about Faith», is very expressive. The Wanderers contributed much to the development of Russian historical painting, the peak of which is the brilliant canvases of Vassily Surikov.

What movement did Perov's works of art foreshadow?

Perov's work was extremely varied and at times showed un expected stylistic potential. Some of his late religious and allegorical paintings foreshadowed Symbolism and Art Nouveau.

Who were Perov's pupils?

Perov was a perfect teacher. From 1871 he taught at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. Among his pupils were Nikolay Kasatkin, Sergey Korovin, Mikhail Nesterov and Andrei Ryabushkin.

Can you tell us about an outstanding British politician?

I can tell you about Winston Churchill. This formidable politician became Prime Minister in May 1940. This was one of the rare moments when events and the man were to be perfectly matched. Winston Churchill, then aged sixty four, saw himself as destined for the part.

What kind of man was Winston Churchill?

Sir Winston Churchill led Great Britain from the brink of de feat to victory as wartime prime minister. He was not only a determinant leader, author, orator, and statesman he perfectly knew the history of the country, and was powerful enough to hold people together. Yet Winston Churchill was a man of contrasts. He was a democrat unable to see that Britain's colonial subjects deserved democracy too; decisive, yet a poor manager of his own cabinet; far-sighted and effective in his own view and practice of global diplomacy, stubbornly wrong-headed at times about military strategy. Winner of the most crucial war in Britain's history he was immediately dismissed by the British electorate from all further conduct of their affairs.

What did Winston Churchill do in his youth?

In his youth, in India, Sudan and the Boer war, Winston Churchill was a daring officer and a war correspondent. After a sensational rise to prominence in national politics before World War I, he acquired a reputation for erratic judgement in the war itself and in the decade that followed.

What do you know about Winston Churchill's activity from 1939 onward?

Politically suspect in consequence, he was a lonely figure until his response to Adolf Hitler's challenge brought him to leader ship of a national coalition in 1940. With Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin he shaped Allied strategy in World War II, and after the breakdown of the alliance he alerted the West to the expansionist threat of the Soviet Union. He led the Conservative Party back to office in 1951 and remained prime minister until 1955, when ill health forced his resignation.

Can tell us about a great British poet?

Yes, certainly. I shall to tell you about Lord Byron, an English Romantic poet and satirist whose poetry and personality captured the imagination of Europe. Renowned as the «gloomy egoist» of his autobiographical poem «Childe Harold's Pilgrimage» in the 19th century, he is now more generally esteemed for the satiric realism of «Don Juan».

What family did Byron come from?

Byron came from a well-to-do family but his father squandered most of his mother fortune. At the age of 10, Byron unexpectedly inherited the title and estates of his great-uncle William, the 5th Baron Byron. Byron went to Harrow, one of the most prestigious schools of England. In 1805 Byron entered Trinity College, Cambridge.

Were Byron's first books popular?

In 1806 Byron had his early poems privately printed in a volume entitled «Fugitive Pieces». Byron's first published volume of poetry «Hours of Idleness» appeared in 1807. A sarcastic critique of the book in «The Edinburgh Review» provoked his retaliation in 1809 with a couplet satire «English Bards and Scotch Reviewers» in which he attacked the contemporary literary scene. This work gained him his first recognition.

Was Byron interested in politics?

Yes, of course. In 1809 Byron took his seat in the House of Lords. In February 1812 he made his first speech in the House of Lords.

What poem brought Byron fame?

«Childe Harold's Pilgrimage» did. At the beginning of March 1812, the first two cantos of «Childe Harold's Pilgrimage» came out and Byron «woke to find himself famous.» The poem describes the travels and reflections of a young man who, disillusioned with a life of pleasure, looks for distraction in foreign lands. Besides the description of Byron's own wanderings through the Mediterranean, the first two cantos express the melancholy and disillusionment felt by a generation weary of the wars of the post-Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras.

What other verse tales did Byron create?

Byron created a number of gloomy verse tales. «The Giaour». «The Bride of Abydos», «The Corsair» sold 10,000 copies on the day of publication. Byron went abroad in April 1816, never to re turn to England. At Geneva Byron wrote the third canto of «Childe Harold». In 1817 he created the poetic drama «Manfred» whose protagonist reflects Byron's own Romantic spirit. In 1817 Byron wrote his greatest poem «Don Juan». In this poem Byron was able to free himself from the excessive melancholy and reveal other sides of his character and personality - his satiric wit, and his unique view of the comic rather than the tragic discrepancy between reality and appearance.

Did Byron take part in any war?

In 1823 Byron participated in the struggle of the Greeks for their independence from the Turks. He sent £ 4,000 of his own money to prepare the Greek fleet for sea service. Byron made efforts to unite various Greek factions. He took personal command of a brigade of Greek soldiers. But a serious illness in February 1824 weakened him, and in April he contracted the fever from which he died. Deeply mourned, he became a symbol of disinterested patriotism and a Greek national hero.

What do Byron's works reveal?

Lord Byron's writings are more autobiographic than even those of his fellow self-revealing Romantics. Upon close examination the paradox of his complex character can be resolved into understandable elements. Byron early became aware of reality's imperfections, but the scepticism and cynicism bred of his disillusionment coexisted with a lifelong tendency to seek ideal perfection in all of life's experiences. Consequently, he alternated between deep-seated melancholy and humorous mockery in his reaction to the disparity between real life and his unattainable ideals. The melancholy of «Childe Harold» and the satiric realism of «Don Juan» are thus two sides of the same coin.

Can you tell us about an American outstanding personality?

Yes, I shall tell you about Abraham Lincoln.

What is Abraham Lincoln notable for?

The 16th president of the United States, Abraham Lincoln preserved the Union during the Civil War and brought about the emancipation of the slaves. Among American heroes, Lincoln continues to have a unique appeal for his fellow countrymen and also for people of other lands. This charm derives from his remark able life story - the rise from humble origins, the dramatic death - and from his distinctively human and humane personality. His relevance endures and grows especially because of his eloquence as a spokesman for democracy. In his view, the Union was worth saving not only for its own sake but also because it embodied an ideal, the ideal of self-government, which was of interest to the people of the entire world. Hence the universality of his continuing appeal.

What is known about Lincoln's childhood?

Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, in a backwoods cabin in Kentucky.

What was Abraham Lincoln's father?

His father, Thomas Lincoln was a sturdy pioneer.

What is known about Abraham Lincoln's youth?

In December 1816 Abraham Lincoln's family moved to south-western Indiana. There his father built a cabin. Abraham helped to clear the fields and take care of the crops. The unhappiest period of his boyhood followed the death of his mother A year later his father married Sarah Bush Johnston. Later Lincoln called her his «angel mother». She encouraged the boy's taste for reading. Yet the original source of Lincoln's desire to learn remains a mystery. Both of his parents were almost completely illiterate, and he himself received little formal education. In March 1830 the Lincoln family moved to Illinois, with Lincoln himself driving the team of oxen. Having just reached the age of 21, he was about to begin life on his own. He was especially noted for the skill and strength with which he could wield an axe. Good-natured though somewhat moody, talented as a storyteller, he readily attracted friends. Later he demonstrated his other abilities.

What did Abraham Lincoln do when he arrived in Illinois?

After his arrival in Illinois, having no desire to be a farmer. Lincoln tried his hand at a variety of occupations. He worked as storekeeper, postmaster, and surveyor. He considered blacksmithing as a trade but finally decided in favour of the law. Al ready he had taught himself grammar and mathematics, and now he started to study lawbooks. In 1836, having passed the bar examination, he began to practice law.

What is known about Lincoln law career?

The next year Abraham Lincoln moved to Springfield, Illinois, the new state capital, which offered many opportunities for a lawyer. From 1844 he was a partner of William H. Herndon. Lincoln had to work hard. About 20 years after launching upon his legal career, Lincoln had made himself one of the most distinguished and successful lawyers in Illinois. He was noted not only for his shrewdness and practical common sense, which enabled him always to see to the heart of any legal case, but also for his invariable fairness and utter honesty.

When did Lincoln become the USA President?

In 1861 Lincoln became President of the USA.

Who else do you admire?

I admire American aviator Charles Lindbergh. He is one of the best-known figures in aeronautical history. Charles Lindbergh is remembered for the first non-stop solo flight across the Atlantic.

What did Charles Lindbergh do early in life?

He was born on February 4, 1902, in Detroit. His formal education ended during his second year at the University of Wisconsin, in Madison, when his growing interest in aviation led to enrolment in a flying school in Lincoln, Nebraska. After a year at the army flying schools in Texas he became an airmail pilot.

When did Charles Lindbergh make his famous flight?

On May 20-21, 1927 in the monoplane «Spirit of St. Louis» Charles Lindbergh made his famous night from New York to Paris in 33 1/2 hours. Overnight Lindbergh became a folk hero on both sides of the Atlantic and a well-known figure in most of the world.

Did Charles Lindbergh take part in World War II?

When the United States entered World War II Charles Lindbergh became a consultant to the United Aircraft Corporation. He flew 50 combat missions during a tour of duty in the Pacific; and later, after the end of the war in Europe, he accompanied a navy technical mission in Europe.

What did Charles Lindbergh do after the war?

Following World War II, Lindbergh lived in Hawaii where he died in 1974.

Did Charles Lindbergh receive any honours and awards for his deeds?

Charles Lindbergh was a member of a number of boards and committees. He received many honours and awards, in addition to the Medal of Honour that had been awarded to him by special act of Congress in 1927. For his services to the government he was appointed brigadier general in the Air Force Reserve by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1954. His book «The Spirit of St. Louis», describing the flight to Paris, was published in 1953 and gained him a Pulitzer Prize.

ANDREI SAKHAROV (1921-89)

There are many outstanding people in our country. Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov is one of them.

He was born on the 21st of May in 1921. His parents were teachers. They paid a lot of attention to their son's education. He graduated from Moscow University in 1942. In 1947 he defended his thesis for the degree of Candidate of Science. Later in 1953 he defended his Doctorate Thesis and became the member of the Academy of Sciences.

A. D. Sakharov was a physicist and he took an active part in developing the hydrogen bomb. He understood that any atomic and nuclear weapons should be banned. He respected men and fought for human rights in our country. He worked a lot. In 1975 he was awarded the Nobel Peace prize.

The life of A. Sakharov was difficult. In 1980 he was deprived of all his titles and he had to leave Moscow for Gorky. He worked there too. He devoted his life to humankind. He was a humanist and he fought for justice, peace, human rights. M. S. Gorbachev helped him to return to Moscow.

A. Sakharov was given back all his titles. A. D. Sakharov died in 1989. He was the representative of our best men. He did a lot and he foresaw a lot. He was an outstanding scientist and a public figure.

Our country remembers his name.

YURI GAGARIN (1934-68)

Yuri Gagarin was the first cosmonaut in the world. Yuri Alexeyevich Gagarin was born on the 9th of March, 1934. He was born in the village of Klushino in the Smolensk region.

Yura was an active, brave and curious boy. His father was jack of all trades and he helped his son when Yura made toy planes by hand. But the war began. Yuri Gagarin and his mother, father, brother and sister left their house and had to live in a dug-out.

After the war Gagarin's family moved to Gzhatsk, now it is Gagarin. It was named after the first cosmonaut.

In 1951 Gagarin graduated from a vocational school in Lyubertsy near Moscow.

Yuri Gagarin attended an aeroclub and began to fly when he was a student of a technical secondary school in Saratov.

In 1955 he entered a school for pilots. Then he became a pilot and joined the first group of cosmonauts.

In 1960 Gagarin began to prepare for the flight into space.

On April 12, 1961 Yuri Gagarin flew into space and spent 108 minutes there. It was the first time in history that the Russian spaceship "Vostok" with the man on board was in space. After his flight he visited many countries and saw millions of people. Gagarin became a Hero of our country.

He died in 1968, but people always remember the first Russian cosmonaut.

ARTHUR CONAN DOYLE (1859-1930)

Arthur Conan Doyle was a great writer-He was born in Scotland in the family of Irish. He was a doctor. In 1882 he moved from Scotland to England to set up a practice. His medical knowledge was a great help to him in his detective stories.

Conan Doyle was one of the first, who started the fashion of detective story. Today the fashion goes on with the stories of other writers.

Conan Doyle created his famous character, Sherlock Holmes, in 1885. Six years later, when Conan Doyle wrote some stories about this detective, the name of Sherlock Holmes became a name that everybody knew. Holmes first appeared in a book called "Study in Scarlet". "The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes" made him famous all over the world.

Conan Doyle became popular because of his love for people. He died in 1930.

13. Mass media

What is the role of mass media in the life of contemporary society?

The role of mass media in the life of the present society is difficult to overestimate. They have become a daily and essential necessity with contemporary men. Mass media report about various aspects of life, form and affect public opinion.

What is implied under the term «mass media»?

Mass media comprise press, radio, TV and the Internet. In this or that form mass media come into every home. To understand the meaning of mass media for the people it is necessary to consider their every aspect separately.

What do you know about the Internet?

The Internet was created in 1983. Since that time it has grown beyond its largely academic origin into an increasingly commercial and popular medium. The Internet connects many computer net works. It is based on a common addressing system and communications protocol called TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). By the mid-1990s the Internet connected millions of computers throughout the world. Many commercial computer network and data services also provided at least indirect connection to the Internet. The World Wide Web, which enables simple and intuitive navigation of Internet sites through a graphical interface, expanded during the 1990s to become the most important component of the Internet.

What can you say about the press?

Newspaper are usually issued daily, weekly, or at other regular times. They provide news, views, features, and other information of public interest and often carry advertising

When did the first newspapers appear in England?

Newspapers appeared in many European countries in the 17th century. The first English printed news book averaging twenty-two pages was the «Weekly News». It appeared in Lon don in 1621. By the 1640s the news book had taken the form of a newspaper. The first periodical was the «London Gazelle», a bi weekly court paper. It started as the «Oxford Gazette» in 1665 when the King and the court moved to Oxford because of London plague.

What was the first English daily?

The first English daily was «The Daily Courant» (1702-35). It was in 1771 that Parliament allowed journalists the right to report its proceedings. The «Times» was founded by John Walter in 1785, and «The Observer» was founded in 1791.

What role do newspapers play today?

Newspapers come out to provide their readers with fresh news. Today people have a chance to have full information about political, economic and cultural events in their own country and abroad.

Are British newspapers homogeneous?

No, they are not. In Great Britain there are no official government newspapers. British newspapers are proud of their individual styles. They can be classified into quality and popular editions.

In what way do quality newspapers differ from the popular ones?

Quality newspapers are serious daily issues. They appeal mainly to the upper and middle classes. Popular, tabloid newspapers are smaller in size and contain many photographs. Unlike quality newspapers popular newspapers are not so serious and their stories tend to be sensational.

What quality newspapers can you name?

Quality newspapers are: «Financial Times», «The Times», «The Guardian», «The Daily Telegraph».

What information do quality newspapers contain?

«Financial Times» contains a comprehensive coverage of industry, commerce and public affairs. «The Times» is the most famous newspaper. It represents the views of the establishment and is well-known for its correspondence column. «The Guardian» gives a wide coverage of news events and reports on social issues, the arts, education. «The Daily Telegraph» contains reports on national and international news, gives a full covering of sports and other topics.

What are popular newspapers?

Popular newspapers are: «The Daily Express», «The Daily Mirror», «The Daily Mail», «The Daily Star», «The Sun». They have a national daily circulation and appeal mainly to the working and middle classes.

When did the first newspapers appear in America?

In the 17th century newspapers, magazines, almanacs were published in America. The oldest printing press in America was set up as early as 1639 at Cambridge, and its activity was never interrupted. The first newspaper in the United States came out in Boston in 1690. But it was suppressed by the colonial governor after one issue. The weekly «Boston News-letter» began publication in 1704. Independent newspaper publishing started with the «New- England Courant» in 1721. In 1776 on the eve of the Revolution Boston had five newspapers, and Philadelphia three. Freedom of the press was achieved the United States in 1791 by the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.

How can American newspapers be classified?

In the USA daily newspapers are of two kinds: quality and popular. «The Wall Street Journal» is a quality newspaper. It covers national and international news. «The Washington Post» contains full coverage of Congress.

Does a national press exist in the USA?

It is a very difficult question. On one hand it is possible to say that there is no national press in the US. because most daily papers are distributed locally. On the other hand one can say that there is a national US press. It is a very specific press as it comes from the sharing of news. I mean that some newspapers not only print, but collect and sell news, news features and photographs to other newspapers. For example, «The New York Times», «The Washington Post», the «Los Angeles Times» are the best news services of this kind.

What can you say about Russian newspapers?

Today Russia can be proud of the variety of newspapers circulating throughout the country. On the news stalls one can find newspapers of all kinds: national and local, official and private, quality and popular, newspapers issued for children, teenagers, people of different trends, for fans: sport-fans, car-fans, etc. Today there are a lot of local and professional newspapers in Russia.

Is it possible to classify Russian newspapers into quality and popular?

Now it is almost impossible to classify all the Russian news papers into two big groups: quality and popular. It is possible to name the newspapers and the bodies responsible for the issue of this or that newspaper to illustrate the variety of the modern Russian press. «Moscovsky Komsomolets» is a social and political newspaper of the Russian youth; «Arguments and Facts» is an in dependent newspaper; «Evening Moscow» is an independent people's newspaper; «The Red Star» is the newspaper of the Defence Ministry.

Are there a lot of magazines in Russia today?

As for the magazines, today they are numerous. They cover all topics and interests, from painting and architecture to tennis, from aviation and gardening to computers and literary criticism.

When did radio appear?

Radio appeared earlier then TV.

Did it take radio long to be a reality?

Radio first became a possibility when the English physicist Michael Faraday demonstrated that an electrical current could produce a magnetic field. In 1864 James Clerk Maxwell, a professor of experimental physics at Cambridge, proved mathematically that these electrical disturbances could be detected at considerable distances. Maxwell predicted that this electromagnetic energy could move outward in waves travelling at the speed of light. In 1888 Heinrich Hertz demonstrated that Maxwell's prediction was true for transmissions over short distances. In 1901 an Italian physicist named Guglielrno Marconi received wireless telegraphic messages sent from Cornwall to Newfoundland. It was hailed as a triumph, but few discerned its full meaning: the birth of a communications revolution. Rather, it was another welcome convenience. Radio underwent rapid improvement in the period before World War II.

Has radio lost its importance with the appearance of TV and the Internet?

Radio has not lost its importance with the appearances of TV and the Internet. Today there are a lot of radio stations of many different types and so much variety. Talk shows and music programmes with disc jockeys are very popular.

When was TV invented?

TV experiments to create a workable television system began in the late 19th century by Paul Nipkow, a German scientist. Today almost every family in the civilized world has a TV set. Television plays an important role in our society, not only as an entertainer and informant, but also because of the grip it has on many people. Television channels easily go into people's home taking in their time and life.

What British and American radio and TV networks do you know?

In the USA the National Public Radio network (NPR) is known for its quality news and discussion programmes. Another public radio network, American Public Radio (APR), with its commentary and entertainment programmes is very popular too. In the USA PBS (Public Broadcasting Service) with its 280 stations is the largest network. The cable networks such as CNN carries news and news stories, SPN covers all sports events, and MTV is famous for its music videos.

What do you know about the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)?

The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) was established in 1936 by the government. It provides five radio stations. The BBC also runs thirty seven local radio stations, providing material of local importance. There are seventy independent local radio stations in Britain. They provide news, information, music, coverage of local events, sports commentaries and the like. External service of the BBC is a very important part of the BBC's work. The BBC World Service broadcasts in thirty five vernacular languages. The British have four main channels to choose, from: BBC-1 and BBC-2, ITV (Independent Television) and Channel Four. It is a well established fact that the high quality of British television is upheld by the BBC.

Newspapers

There are many kinds of newspapers in our country. It is possible to buy them almost everywhere. But we can't read all the newspapers. We know that it is necessary to read newspapers. Reading them we can learn a lot of interesting and useful things. I think that everyone must read newspapers every day. I read many newspapers and magazines.

Everyone has its favourite newspapers. I like "Vechernaya Moskva" best of all. This newspaper was published on the 6th of December, 1923 for the first time. It usually has 8 pages. You can read some news on the 1st page. You can't know a lot about these events, you read only some facts, which are usually short, but interesting. If you turn the second page, you can read about our life. You can read about events abroad and about your favourite artists and singers, too. You can see some advertisements on each page of the newspaper and use them. You can learn about the weather from the pages of this newspaper.

If you are fond of football, basket-ball or tennis, you read articles about sport events in our country and about our famous sportsmen. If you want to buy something you have to read the last page.

There are some humorous stories in this newspaper.

Magazines

It is interesting to look through some magazines or read them. It is possible to subscribe to some of them or buy them. We usually subscribe to the magazine "At the wheel". As we have a car it is useful for us to read it. My mother Prefer to read the magazine "Liza". She says that it even helps her in some cases.

Television and radio

I think that they are very popular means of information. They are popular among young people in our country. We can know a lot of news watching TV or listening to the radio set. All members of our family watch TV very regularly. We like such programme as "My family". I prefer to discuss some problems with my parents after it. I have many favourite TV programmes but I haven't enough time to watch all of them.

14. Free time. Hobbies

Leisure time

What do you usually do in your leisure time?

Unfortunately, as I have not had much free time this year, I have done my best to spend it wisely. It is known, that people can do all kinds of things in their spare time. They go shopping, play football, collect records or stamps. Of course, some of the time activities, like visiting relatives or taking driving lessons, may not be fun. In big cities people spend their free time by going to the theatre, cinema, museums, art galleries, concert hall, fitness or disco clubs. When I have some free time I can choose any of them. But when the weather is fine, I like to go for a walk along the boulevards and streets of the city with my friends, enjoying its architecture.

A re you fond of collecting anything?

No, I am not. I have not enough time to collect anything. My friend collects coins. His collection is rather rich. Coins of different countries are gathered there. Moreover, he has a lot of books devoted to numismatics and albums picturing the coin collections of different museums.

What do you think about it?

Everyone has the right to collect various, even the most unusual things, if it gives sense to his or her life. People collect paintings, stamps, match boxes, bottles, cans, buttons, books, etc. I know that girls are fond of collecting dolls. Some of them do not give it up even when they are of age. In their spare time people can read books, listen to their favourite music, invite their friends to a cafe or a park, or watch TV. Watching TV is also a popular leisure activity. Sometimes it is pleasant to be entertained without leaving the apartment. But excessive TV watching deprives a person of his initiative. Very often TV addicts are governed by television.

Do you have the same problems?

No, I don't. We turn on our television to watch only selected programmes. In my leisure time I read books, go to the theatre or cinema.

Do you like to go to the theatre?

Yes, I do.

Do you often go to the theatre?

No, I do not. I do not often go to the theatre. If I have a chance, I prefer to go to the Bolshoi Theatre, Mali Theatre or Art Theatre. I like conventional rendering of the classical ballets, op eras and plays. The tradition of Russian realist theatre was exemplified in the work of Konstantin Stanislavsky of the Moscow Art Theatre. The leading theatre companies of ballet are the Bolshoi in Moscow and Mariinsky in St. Petersburg. Russian ballet had a formative role in Western dance through a number of figures, such as Sergey Diaghilev and Vaslav Nijinsky.

Do you like ballet?

Yes, I do. Once saw a ballet «Giselle». The performance with its beautiful music, designs and cast was perfect. My concentration and enjoyment were intense. I also saw some new ballets with music from «outerspace», with dancers resembling mysteriously lit sculptural images, and severely geometrical de signs, and I can not say that I delighted in them. I prefer classical performances.

What do you expect when you go to the theatre?

When I go to the theatre I expect more than just fun of it. I want to see some actors I've heard of or a new version of the classical play. Recently I've seen the theatrical adaptation of Oscar Wilde's «Picture of Dorian Gray». It is excellent. If you want a thought provoking evening at the theatre, that's the one you want to see. But most of all like to go to the cinema.

Is it your hobby?

Yes. It is one of my hobbies.

What kind of films do you like to see?

I delight in seeing all kinds of films: comedies, love-stories, thrillers, westerns, war films, and cartoons. I like films if they are exciting. I do not like horror films because of their frightening moments even if they are superbly made and the acting is marvellous.

What are your favourite films?

One time I liked films directed by James Cameron. When I was younger I saw his heavy-metal Sci-Fi «Terminator» and «Terminator 2» several times. The special effects were wonderful and important to the success of the films. I took pleasure in ferociously exciting «Aliens». I liked his «Titanic» too. «Titanic» was no mere disaster movie. It was an epic love story. Cameron's 'Romeo and Juliet' on a sinking ship became an international sensation.

What other films have impressed you?

I was really impressed by two movies - «Gladiator» and «Pearl Harbour». «Gladiator» is a very amazing movie. Well photographed and directed it is really the best movie of the past decade. It is really magnificent. The fight scenes were great, and the characters were well developed. The screenplay is excellent. It is a sweeping story of courage and revenge. Russell Crowe is fabulous as Maximus. His portrayal of the major character is superb. His leadership, confidence, skill and heart are persuasive. In the first minutes, I completely realized the utter devotion that Maximus secured from his men, and his Caesar. I am actually keen to see it again, just to catch those things I missed while trying to keep up with it all. I would love to see all those sweeping views of Rome and the wonderful statues through the city. As for «Pearl Harbour», unfortunately it tried to be a war movie and a love story at the same time, and whilst «Titanic» knew when to stop with the love story and focus on the tragedy, «Pearl Harbour» was not capable of achieving the same distinction. It does not mean that I did not enjoy «Pearl Harbour». I want to say that the movie had the potential to be so much more than it actually was.

Do you like to read books?

Yes, I do. I am fond of reading books.

What books do you like to read?

I am fond of science fiction.

When did this form of fiction develop?

This form of fiction developed in the 20th century. It deals with the impact of actual or imagined science upon society or individuals. This term is used to refer to any literary fantasy that includes a scientific factor as an essential orienting component.

What does such literature consist of?

It consists of an extrapolation of scientific facts and principles, or it incorporates absolutely contradictory facts and principles. In either case, likelihood based on science is a requisite.

Who were the precursors of the genre?

In the 18th century they were Voltaire with his «Micromegas», Jonathan Swift with «Gulliver's Travels». In the 19th century the precursors of the genre were Mary Shelley with her Gothic novel «Frankenstein», Robert Louis Stevenson's with his «Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde».

When did science fiction begin?

Science fiction began at the end of the 19th century with the scientific romances of Jules Verne, whose science was rather on the level of invention, as well as with the science-oriented novels of social criticism of H.G. Wells. They pioneered what may be properly termed science fiction.

When did science fiction emerge as a mode of serious fiction?

With the publication of stories and novels of such writers as Isaac Asimov, Arthur C. Clarke, and Robert A. Heinlein, science fiction emerged as a mode of serious fiction. Such writers as Aldous Huxley, C.S. Lewis, and Kurt Vonnegut, who were not de voted exclusively to science fiction, also added much to it.

Whose works became paperback best-sellers during the postwar period?

The works of such science-fiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period as A.E. Van Vogt, J.G. Ballard, Ray Bradbury, Frank Herbert, Harlan Ellison, Poul Anderson, Samuel R. Delany, Ursula K. LeGuin, Frederik Pohl, Octavia E. Butler, and Brian Aldiss became paperback best-sellers. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on the Earth, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.

What were the aims of the science fiction writers?

Since the days of Wells's «Time Machine» and «Invisible Man», the aims of science fiction were didactic. The works of contemporary writers opposed the utopianism that Wells built on the potentialities of socialism and technology. Aldous Huxley's «Brave New World» showed how dangerous utopianism could be, since the desire for social stability might overlook techniques that would destroy the fundamental human right to make free choices. Toward the end of his life Huxley produced a cautious Utopian vision in «Island», but the dystopian horrors of his earlier novel and of his «Ape and Essence» remain more convincing. Orwell's «Nineteen Eighty-four» showed a world in which a tyrannic unity is imposed by a collective solipsism, and contradictions are liquidated through the constant revision of history that the controlling party decrees. Anthony Burgess' «Clockwork Orange» and «Wanting Seed» portray ghastly futures that extrapolate, respectively, philosophies of crime control and population control out of present-day tendencies that are only potentially dangerous.

Are there any science-fiction books without prophetic or warning intent?

The fantasist who fantasizes without prophetic or warning intent is rarer, but works such as Nabokov's «Ada», Tolkien's «Lord of the Rings» cycle, and «Christine Brooke-Rose's Out» rep resent legitimate and heartening stretching of the imagination, assurances that the novelist has the right to create secondary worlds, as well as characters, of his own.

Who created secondary worlds?

Only three masters became architects of a complete secondary world. The vast Middle Earth trilogy «The Lord of the Rings», by J.R.R. Tolkien, was not written for children. It reworks many of the motives of traditional romance and fantasy. It is essentially a structure of sheer invention. Tolkien's fellow scholar, C.S. Lewis, created his own otherworld of Narnia. It is more clearly Christian- allegorical, more carefully adapted to the tastes of children. The seven volumes of the cycle are exciting. And the final scenes of «The Last Battle» are deeply moving. The third of these classic secondary worlds is in a sense not a creation of fantasy. The four volumes about the «Borrowers», with their brief pendant, «Poor Stainless», ask the reader to accept only a single impossibility, that in a quiet country house, under the grandfather clock, live the tiny Clock family: Pod, Homily, and their daughter Arrietty. All that follows from this premise is logical, precisely pictured, and carries absolute conviction. Many critics believe that this miniature world so lovingly, so patiently fashioned by Mary Norton will last as long as those located at the bottom of the rabbit hole and through the looking glass.

Is it difficult for a person to have a hobby?

No, I don't think so. I can say that there are a lot of ways of spending one's free time. I always have a lot to do in my leisure time. It is great to have some free time and do what is really pleasant.

MY HOBBY

What is a hobby? It is what you can and like to do, when you have free time. We choose a hobby according to our character and taste. When we have a hobby our life becomes more interesting.

Very often our hobby helps us to choose our future profession because we learn a lot of new things.

Many people are interested in music. They collect records. Others like to read and collect books. People living in cities and towns like to be closer to nature and they spend their free time in the country.

Some of us go on hikes, some like to Work in their gardens, take photographs or knit.

For example, gardening and growing roses is the most common hobby among Englishmen.

Both grown-ups and children are fond of playing different computer games. It has become one of the numerous hobbies.

I have got a hobby too.

My name is Nastya. Sometimes I have got some free time. As my hobby is cooking I like to make cakes and pies. My cakes are very tasty, but I like pies best of all. I'll tell you how I make pies with cabbage.

First of all I take a head of cabbage, cut and put it into a frying-pan. Then I take carrot and peel it. By the way I have a very comfortable grater at home. I like to use it when I make my pies. I usually grate carrot, onion using my favourite grater. I put grated carrot into the frying-pan, then I salt cabbage and carrot to my taste, mix them and add some water. Then I stew these vegetables in the frying-pan. I usually buy some paste for my pies.

I cut up paste, roll it and make small pies. Then I put pies with stewed cabbage into the oven. It takes twenty minutes to bake them. My parents and friends like to eat my pies. I advise you to make such pies and I hope that you'll like them too.

15. My school

At the age of 6 or 7 all boys and girls go to school. I go to school too. The number of my school is 338. Our school is large and light. It is neither old nor new. There is a school yard around it. It is a pity, but there are no flowers near the school. You can see a sports ground behind the school. Sometimes we have physical training lessons there.

Our school has got three floors. There is a workshop on the ground floor. It is big. There are all kinds of tools and machines there. The boys of our school have a wood-work room too. They learn to make things of wood in this room. There is a room for manual work for girls. It is not on the ground floor, it is on the second floor.

There are some computer classes, and pupils like such school subjects as Computing.

If you enter the school and go to the left you see a dining-room. Here pupils and teachers have their breakfast and dinner.

The dining-room is a clean one. There are many nice pictures on the walls.

There is a gymnasium near the dining-room. All pupils like to go there, because they like physical training lessons.

Our school has got a library. It is on the ground floor too. There are a lot of interesting new and old books in it. But our library has no reading-room.

Our school has got many classrooms. We have got two English classrooms, History, Geography and Physics classrooms and others. They are big and light and each of them has got two large windows with green curtains, flowers on the window-sills, a bookcase near the door, the blackboard on the wall.

The teacher's table with many books on it is situated not far from the blackboard. There are twenty desks and some comfortable chairs in the classrooms. There is a TV set in each classroom. Sometimes it is used during the lessons.

There is a school hall on the second floor where meetings and conferences take place.

We organize concerts, parties when we celebrate our holidays. Pupils of our school sing songs and dance modern and folk dances and perform some plays there. The last bell is organized at our school in a proper way. It is a very remarkable day in the life of all the pupils. The pupils of the first form and the pupils of the eleventh one are preparing for this day with great pleasure.

The teachers' room is on the second floor. There are tables and chairs for teachers, a TV set and a telephone there. It is a comfortable and cosy room and the teachers like to spend their free time in it. I like my school. I go there and get knowledge.

Pupils have school uniforms in En-gland. It is an old tradition in the country. A boy's uniform consists of a special suit, a school cap, a tie and a blazer. A girl's uniform consists of a hat a coat, a skirt and a blouse. As usual their uniform is dark.

16. Arts

Are you fond of arts?

Yes, I am. I am fond of arts. I really enjoy everything that is aesthetically beautiful. I like painting, sculpture, and architecture. I am also fond of music, ballet, opera, and theatre. Masterpieces have always inspired people. The twentieth century has given the world one more variety of arts - cinema.

What kind of music do you like?

I like both serious and pop music. I want to say that the striking changes in musical style occurred about 1900. After World War II avant-garde music began to employ the electronics techniques. The dehumanizing of music has been carried further by the use of computers to determine the nature of sound materials and even to create musical pieces.

Was popular music wide spread in the 20th century?

Yes, it was.

What brought about the tremendous growth of popular music during the 20th century?

The tremendous growth of popular music during the 20th century was the result of advances in electronics. New techniques have made possible high-fidelity reproduction of sound and its widespread and rapid dissemination through radio, phonograph, tape recorder, and television. In addition, some of the instruments used in popular music have incorporated electronic amplification as well as sound production.

When did popular music originate?

Popular music in the modern sense originated in the late 18th century, when ballads made popular in ballad operas and dance music received wide circulation.

What prompted a new direction in popular music in the 20th century?

In the 20th century a new direction in popular music was prompted by the emergence of jazz among blacks in the southern United States. After the original ragtime came jazz proper, swing, bebop, and rock in its numerous manifestations - punk, new wave, etc. Early in the century, the novelty of jazz rhythms and dominance of brass, woodwind, and percussion instruments over strings attracted some serious composers who occasionally incorporated suitable jazz idioms into their works. Since about 1930 popular music has gradually adopted techniques that originated in serious music. Regardless of the interaction of popular and serious music, the popularity of the former is one of the most significant musical developments of the 20th century.

Who is your favourite composer?

My favourite composer is Sergey Rachmaninoff. He was the last great figure of the tradition of Russian Romanticism and a leading piano virtuoso of his time. He is especially known for his piano concerti and the piece for piano and orchestra entitled «Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini». At the age of 19 he graduated from the conservatory, winning a gold medal for his one-act opera «Aleko» (after Aleksandr Pushkin's poem «The Gypsies»). His fame and popularity, both as composer and concert pianist, were launched by two compositions: the «Prelude», and his «Piano Concerto No. 2». Rachmaninoff’s music, although produced mostly in the 20th century, re mains firmly entrenched in the 19th-century music. He was the final to express the tradition embodied by P. Tchaikovsky.

Do you like the music of other Russian composers?

Yes, of course. I also enjoy Mikhail Glinka's music. He was me first Russian composer to win international recognition, and the acknowledged founder of the Russian nationalist school. The opera that first won him fame was «Life for the Tsar». It was produced at St. Petersburg in 1836.

What else did Glinka create?

In 1842 Glinka created his second opera «Ruslan and Lyudmila». The composer Franz Listz was fascinated by the novelty of Glinka's music.

Did Glinka's music influence the composers of succeeding generations?

It should be said that Glinka's work, although small in bulk, is the basis of practically all later Russian music. «Ruslan and Lyudmila» provided models of lyrical melody and colourful orchestration on which Mily Balakirev, Aleksandr Borodin, and Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov formed their styles. Glinka's orchestral composition «Kamarinskaya», of 1848, according to Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky, became the foundation of later Russian symphonic music.

Do you like the music of modern composers?

As for modern composers I am fond of experimental works of Igor Stravinsky. He heralded a new epoch in music. Stravinsky's revolutionary style, labelled «dynamism,» «barbarism,» or «primitivism,» concentrated on metric imbalance and dissonance. Following the leadership of Stravinsky, Bela Bartok, and Sergey Prokofiev, entered a Neo-classical period characterized by restraint of emotional content.

Do you like opera?

Yes, I do. Especially I like the operas created by Mozart, Verdi, and Tchaikovsky.

Do you known anything about the history of opera?

It is generally accepted that opera began in 1600 when the Florentine composer Jacopo Peri produced his «Euridice», which is considered to be the first opera, at the wedding of the King of France Henry IV and Maria de Medici. Later a group of Italian musicians, poets, and noblemen called «Camerata» revived the style of musical story that had been used in Greek tragedy. By the late 1600s operas spread throughout Europe. Composers produced complicated arias, recitatives, duets to demonstrate the splendid voices of the singers.

Do you like pop music?

Yes, I do. I prefer the «Beatles» to all recent pop groups.

Who were the members of the group?

The four members of the group, all born in Liverpool, were Paul McCartney, John Lennon, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr. They came from a working-class background, and ail had worked in various rock groups before they started performing together.

When was the name of the group adopted?

The name the «Beatles» was adopted in 1960. They were per forming at clubs in Liverpool and in Hamburg, which served as a proving ground for popular musicians of the period.

What songs made them the most popular rock group in Eng land!

Such songs as «Love Me Do,» «Please Please Me,» «She Loves You,» and «I Want To Hold Your Hand» made them the most popular rock group in England. Early in 1964 what soon came to be called «Beatlemania» struck the United States with the release there of the two last-named records and their first U.S. television appearance on the «Ed Sullivan Show.»

Who was inspired by the music of the «Beatles»!

Such U.S. performers as Chuck Berry, Elvis Presley, and Bill Haley were inspired by the music of the «Beatles». The «Beatles'» long hair and tastes in dress proved influential throughout the world.

What kept the «Beatles» at the top of popularity charts for several years?

The freshness and excitement of the earliest days of rock and roll and, in combination with the simple but engaging lyrics of Lennon and McCartney, kept the group at the top of popularity charts for several years. They won recognition from the music industry in the form of awards for performances and songs. With a solid financial basis they could experiment with new musical forms and arrangements. The result was a variety of songs ranging from ballads such as «Yesterday» to complex rhythm tunes like «Paperback Writer,» from children's songs such as «Yellow Submarine» to songs of social comment, including «Eleanor Rigby.»

When did their public performances end?

Their public performances ended in 1966.

Do you know any other long-lived and popular rock band?

The «Rolling Stones», English musical group, was one of the most long-lived and popular of all rock bands.

What can you tell us about this rock band?

The name «Rolling Stones» was adopted from a song by the American blues musician Muddy Waters. The «Rolling Stones» began to perform in England in 1963, and a series of outstanding songs had made the band second in popularity only to the «Beatles» among rock and roll audiences by 1966.

What albums made the «Rolling Stones» popular?

The group reached the height of its popularity in the late 1960s and early '70s with such albums as «Beggar's Banquet», «Let It Bleed», «Sticky Fingers», and «Exile On Main Street».

When were the «Rolling Stones» performing?

The «Rolling Stones» were still performing in the late 20th century, long after the «Beatles» and other classic rock bands of the 1960s had disbanded.

What was the «Rolling Stones» music marked by?

The «Rolling Stones'» music was marked by a driving back- beat, biting and satirical lyrics, simple but expressive instrumental accompaniments, and Jagger's blues-influenced singing.

Well, now let us talk about painting. Are you fond of painting?

To me painting is second only to music. I take a special liking to masters' masterpieces. I have several albums with the greatest Russian and West European paintings.

Which painting do you prefer Russian or West European?

It is almost impossible to say which painting I prefer Russian or West European. Each of them has its own peculiarities. I like the colour of Andrew Rublev's masterpieces and I enjoy the Impressionists works of art. I am also fond of the «Little masters'» works of art. But most of all I admire Giotto. He is regarded the founder of modern painting. Giotto introduced perspective, three dimensional forms, landscape background, one scale for the people and another for the surroundings, light without indication of source and foreshortening in perspective. 1 also like the art works created by the Russian painters - members of the «World of Art» group, such as Aleksandr Benois, Yevgeny Lansere, Konstantin Somov, Bakst.

What was the goal of the painters of the «World of Art» group?

They strove to achieve a synthesis of new western European trends and certain elements of traditional Russian folk art. They attacked the artistic standards of the realist painters, the deadening influence of the Russian Academy of Arts, and emphasized individualism and artistic personality.

Whose works of art of the painters of the «World of An» group do you like most?

I like the works created by Konstantin Somov. He was a painter and graphic artist. Somov attended the St. Petersburg Academy of Fine Art from 1888 to 1897, then he went to Paris to attend the studios of Filippo Colarossi and Whistler. Neither the Realism of the Russian teachers nor the fleeting quality of Whistler's art was reflected for long in Somov's work. Somov was associated with the «World of Art» Journal from 1898. He concentrated on the subjects from the eighteenth century. In the «Lady in Blue», of 1897-1900, an oil portrait of the artist Yelizaveta Martynova, the outmoded dress of the figure in the foreground, and the park-like setting creates the atmosphere of a reverie. Somov's paintings are characterized by a melancholy nostalgia in line with the gallant age of Watteau. The artist shared his moods with the symbolism.

Do you like the works of art of other Russian painters?

Yes, do. I like Karl Bryullov's works of art.

What can you tell us about Karl Bryullov's paintings?

Karl Bryullov is celebrated for the unusual breadth of his artistic talent. He was a perfect historical painter, portraitist, and genre painter. He made the most notable contribution to the Ro mantic spirit having combined technical proficiency and classical academic training with a Romantic impulsiveness to produce some of the liveliest examples of Russian art of the period.

Where did Karl Bryullov study?

Bryullov was educated at the St Petersburg Academy of Fine Arts. He studied in Italy from 1823.

What is Bryullov's greatest work?

Bryullov's monumental painting the «Last Day of Pompeii» is his greatest work. It brought him an international reputation. Russia greeted him as a hero who had glorified the Motherland. Alexander Pushkin, Vassily Zhukovsky and Nikolay Gogol all warmly welcomed the artist.

Were Bryullov's other paintings also popular?

Though he painted other monumental historical canvases, none was as successful as the «Last Day of Pompeii». Much of his reputation rests on his more intimate portraits, water-colours, and travel sketches. Bryullov succeeded in asserting something new in everything he created. During his long stay in Italy he was charmed by the life and customs of the Italians, their humour and lyricism. In Italy Bryullov created a series of small genre paintings.

Is Karl Bryullov your favourite Russian painter?

Karl Bryullov is one of my favourite Russian painters.

Whose works art do you also admire?

I am fond of genre scenes. I like Pavel Fedotov's works of art very much. He was a great master of genre painting. The painter elevated the household theme to the level of drama. He understood his task in raising the moral standards of the people by unmasking the vices of the society in his art. Fedotov was a prolific painter. For nine years he created a great number of perfect works of art, such as «A Newly Awarded Officer», «The Fastidious Bride», «The Aristocrat's Breakfast», two versions of the «Mayor's Proposal», three versions of «The Young Widow», «Encore, Once more Encore», «The Gamblers». The movement initiated by Fedotov soon became known as Critical Realism. It laid the foundation for the democratic painting of the «Wanderers» in the second half of the 19-th century.

What do you know about the «Wanderers»?

A truly national realistic tradition began with the appearance of the «Wanderers». Kramskoy organized a protest against prescribed mythological themes in the competition for the Great Gold Medal that gave a six-year scholarship to study abroad. This action marked a break with the Academy's outdated form of Neoclassicism patterned on Western models which lost popularity with the educated public but continued to be taught and favoured at the official level. After the break with the Academy Kramskoy sustained a group of thirteen independent painters both organizationally and intellectually in keeping with the spirit of the reform and renovation that swept Russia during the 1860s after the emancipation of the serfs. He set up a communal workshop (artel), the «Wanderers». At the same time Kramskoy defined ideological underpinnings of the new art: a combination of civic, moral and national goals, which infused Russian realism with its crystal-clear ideal of service. He asserted that as painters in Russia were not free they had to take the most urgent problems of the day as the subjects of their works of art. The most prominent Russian artists of the 1870s and '80s, including Ivan Kramskoy, Il'ya Repin, Vassily Surikov, Vassily Perov, and Vassily Vereshchagin, belonged to this group. The «Wanderers» attached much importance to the moral and literary aspects of art than to aesthetics. Their artistic creed was realism, national feeling, and social consciousness. The influence of the «Wanderers» spread throughout Russia. This group was dominant for nearly 30 years.

Can you tell us about one of the painters who sympathized with the «Wanderers»?

I shall tell you about Vassily Vereshchagin. He was a naval officer, and on board the frigate «Kamchatka» he sailed to Den mark, France and Egypt. In 1860 having abandoned his naval officer career, Vereshchagin entered the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts. But dissatisfied with the conservatism and idealistic conventions of the academic system, he left the Academy in 1863. The critical realism of the «Wanderers» always evoke Vereshchagin's sympathy. He participated in some of their exhibitions.

What is Vereshchagin's best-known work of art?

The best-known work of Vereshchagin's Turkish series is the «Apotheosis of War». It shows a pile of skulls against the devastated city. On the frame there is an inscription: «Dedicated to all great conqueror: past, present, future.» The subject of the painting, distinguished for anti-war symbolism, was repeated numerously in the 20th century anti-war poster. Vereshchagin appealed for pacifism and his social concern attracted the sympathy of the liberally minded circles.

What other Vereshchagin's works of art were are popular?

Vereshchagin's anti-Napoleonic series were very popular. The huge paintings of the series are not entirely free from the theatrical effects and the pomposity, but certain images are memorable because of their dramatism. «Keep away I'll Take Care of Him», of 1888-95, depicts the Russian partisans in an ambush, surrounded by the branches of a snow-covered forest.

Are you fond of portraiture?

Yes, I do. I like the portraits created by the Russian painters of the 18th century such as Vladimir Borovikovsky, Fyodor Rokotov, and Vladimir Dmitry Levitsky. The painters tried to render the richness of the spiritual life of their models. They endowed them with the nobility of the human countenance and form. Karl Bryullov was an excellent portraitist too. Even in the ceremonial portraits he managed to attach something new and turn the piece into a genre painting. Bryullov's supreme achievements in portraiture are intimate, small-scale portraits, in which the artist was not restricted by academic tradition. Bryullov's self-portrait is one of his best works of art. The members of the «World of Art» group also produced remarkable portraits of renowned Russian writers and artists. For example, Somov made a number of portraits of out standing Russian people, including Alexander Blok.

What English painters can you name?

William Hogarth, Thomas Gainsborough, Joshua Reynolds, John Constable are outstanding English painters. One of the greatest painters of Britain is Joseph Mallord William Turner. He often painted historical subjects, involving violence as well as shipwrecks and conflagrations, in which the individual figures appear as scarcely more than spots in a seething tide of humanity. He liked to accompany his works with the labels with quotations from poetry, often his own. Turner was fond of painting the pure movement of masses of colour - a kind of colour music, strikingly relevant to Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s. Turner's masterpieces are «The Slave Ship» and the «Rain, Steam and Speed». In the former the painter represented an incident common in the days of slavery, when entire human cargoes were thrown into the sea, either because of epidemics or to avoid arrest. The latter is one of the first paintings of a railway train, and its Romantic idealization of «progress» - man conquering nature by utilizing its force. It should be said that Turner's colour sense provided a revelation to the French Impressionists.

Is the English school of painting proud of its portraitists?

Yes, certainly. The greatest of them are Joshua Reynolds and Thomas Gainsborough. They created the portraits of celebrated lords and ladies. Their works are full of charm and elegance. Throughout the 18th century, portraiture was the most important genre of British painting. In portraiture an interest in extremes of mood found most eloquent expression in the work of Sir Thomas Lawrence. In the portraits «Richard Payne Knight» and «Pope Pius VII» the artist combined brilliant freedom of handling with dramatic expression and setting.

Do you like American art?

Yes, I do.

How did it develop in the 20th century?

At the beginning of the twentieth century American Art was still traditional. But artistic currents from Europe continued to flow. They resulted in the neorealist «Ash Gan» group, and in the modernist group of «291». An absolutely original American painter was Georgia O'Keffe. Throughout her long creative life, O'Keffe's imagery was derived from the great variety of objects surrounding her. In her «Blue and Green Music» the brushwork moved like visual music. After World War I some American artists turned to new forms of realism, focusing on the banality of American urban and rural life. One of the best of these American scene painters was Edward Hopper, He presents us with a bleak world made up of dirty streets, gloomy houses, comfortless rooms such as in the «Automate».

What can you tell us about American cultural life?

American culture has produced many outstanding writers, filmmakers, and musicians. The country's 19th-century literature was dominated by such names as Mark Twain, Edgar Allan Рое, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman, and Henry James. Among the great American writers of the 20th century were Ernest Hemingway, William Faulkner, John Steinbeck, and F. Scott Fitzgerald. The dramatists Eugene O'Neill and Tennessee Williams. The poets Ezra Pound, T.S. Eliot, and Robert Frost were popular too.

What is one of the USA most popular and internationally influential art forms?

One of the country's most popular and internationally influential art forms has been the motion picture. American filmmakers such as Charlie Chaplin, Howard Hawks, Orson Welles, Frank Capra, John Ford, John Huston, Martin Scorsese, and Steven Spielberg gained world fame for cinematic artistry.

What music types have been developed in the USA?

The country has developed several distinctive and highly influential types of popular music: jazz, the blues, country and western, and rock and roll. The most important performers have included Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Charlie Parker, and John Coltrane in jazz; Muddy Waters in the blues, Hank Williams in country and western, and Elvis Presley in rock and roll.

MUSIC IN OUR LIFE

It is difficult to live without music. We hear music everywhere: in the streets, at home, over the radio and on TV, in the shops, in the parks and in the concert halls, at the seaside.

We can't live without music. We like to listen to music, we enjoy to dance to music, we play musical instruments.

A music lesson is one of the favourite subjects at school.

The teacher of music tells the pupils about famous composers and teaches them to sing songs. Pupils prepare concerts for school holidays, learn new songs, play different musical instruments.

Some people are interested in music very much. Children can learn at music schools if they are capable and fond of music. They study there for seven years

Music is a combination of many sounds. It reflects our mood and emotions.

There are numerous folk groups in our country. It is interesting to listen to their music and songs.

Last week my friends and I visited a concert of folk music. Artists danced folk dances and sang folk songs. This concert made a great impression on us.

Both classical and modern music are popular in our country. My friend Mike and I are fond of classical music. Sometimes we spend our free time, listening to music by Wolfgang Mozart and other composers. His "Fourth Symphony" and the "Sixth Symphony" by Shostakovich impressed us very much.

Nowadays young people prefer modern music. If you want to listen to modern music you can attend the music halls and the concerts of popular groups and singers.

I like to listen to the songs by our popular singers Julian, Alla Pugacheva and Valery Leontyev. They are talented and skilled singers and composers and I like to visit their concerts. My friends and I buy tickets beforehand and often take flowers for our favourite singers.

As to foreign songs I prefer to listen to Adriano Chelentano. He is an Italian ginger and actor. He is popular not only in his native land but also in other countries.

VISITING THEATRES Text I

There are many theatres in our country, but the most famous of them are in Moscow. If you want to visit a theatre you have to buy a ticket.

Now you have bought the ticket. You pass through an entrance and go to the cloak-room. Then you go to the hall. There are rows of seats there. You can see the pit near the stage. There are boxes on both sides of the pit.

A dress-circle is higher than the pit. The balconies are higher than the dress-circle. There is a beautiful chandelier in the hall.

I am a theatre-goer. I prefer to visit drama theatres and the Bolshoi Theatre.

As I like to sit in the pit, I try to buy a ticket beforehand. I usually look through a playbill before going to theatres.

Two months ago I saw "Three Sisters" by Chekhov in Moscow Art Theatre. The play was splendid. The main role was played by Tatyana Doronina. I like this actress. I think, she is talented. When the curtain rose, we saw a nice scenery and the spectators began to applaud. It was a storm of applause. I can say that during this performance all the actors and actresses were playing excellently. On the way home we discussed the performance with my friends.

I usually go to the theatre with my friends.

VISITING THEATRES Text II

There are many theatres in our country. If you want to see a performance or a play you must go to the theatre. You can see dramas, tragedies or comedies there. We have some famous theatres in Moscow. For example, the Bolshoi and the Maly Theatres are famous theatres all over the world.

All theatres differ from each other. They have their plays, their actors, actresses. But on the other hand all theatres have a box-office, a cloak-room and almost all theatre performances begin at the same time in all theatres.

There is a popular theatre for children in Moscow. It is the Children's Musical Theatre. Children, pupils and their parents like to go there. You can see many interesting plays in this theatre.

If I want to go to the theatre, first of all, I have to buy a ticket. If it is an interesting and popular performance it is difficult to buy a ticket at once. That's why I have to buy a ticket beforehand. Now I have a ticket. I go to the theatre, leave my coat in the cloak-room. Then I go to the foyer. It is interesting to see the photos of the famous and popular actors and actresses on the walls. I want to know who plays in this performance and I buy a programme. The performance begins at 7 o'clock in the evening after the third bell. My seat is near the stage. I like the performance and I applaud the actors and actresses. The performance has got two parts. During the interval I usually go to the cafe to have a cake and drink a cup of tea or a cup of coffee, or a glass of lemonade. I like to discuss the play if I see it with my friends.

There are many theatres in London, too. English people are theatre-lovers. Now there are more than fifty theatres in the West End of London.

There are some leading theatres in London. They are the Royal Shakespeare Company, the Old Vic (Old Victoria Theatre) and the National Theatre. It is a good tradition in England to visit theatres on a birthday or an anniversary.

THE CINEMA

The Lumiere brothers made their first film in 1895. This film was demonstrated in one famous cafe in Paris.

The first films were silent and short, but they were popular among people.

The USA was the leader in the production of films. The first sound film appeared in 1927. Soon coloured films appeared.

Cinematography has a long history in our country too.

Pioneers of the Russian cinema were Protozanov, Gardin, later Pudovkin and Dovzhenko. At that time films were silent and black-and-white.

Later films became sound and colourful.

Some years ago it was popular to go to the cinemas in Moscow. It was difficult to buy a ticket for a good film and we had to stand in a queue for hours.

But now we prefer to stay at home and watch TV and video films.

In England the cinema is usually called "the pictures". The prices of cinema seats in London are high. In the past cinemas were more popular than they are now. It is interesting that in some towns in Britain the cinemas are closed on Sundays.

I like to see documentary films best of all. Some of them are rather interesting, because they tell us the truth about the history of our country.

I like to see films about school life. As I study at school, such films are connected 0th me. It is interesting to see films about school life in England, France, Spain and in the USA. It is interesting to know about foreign education and to see their schools.

My favourite Russian film is "Moscow doesn't believe in tears". It is the true story about the girl. She leaves her village for Moscow. This film tells us about her difficulties, about her wish to live in the capital, about her friends. I am sure that it is a kind and a clever film.

17. Museums and picture galleries

THE BRITISH MUSEUM

There are many interesting museums in London.

The British Museum was founded in 1753. One doctor Ganse Sloan had a big collection of paintings. He bequeathed it to the state. Now the British Museum is one of the biggest museums in the world. One can see many subjects of primitive art and antique culture. It is interesting to notice that there are a lot of old money, medals, manuscripts, coins, engravings.

It is necessary to pay attention to a very old original stone in the British Museum with Egyptian letters on it.

The British Museum in London has a very big library. Many famous scientists, writers and politicians worked there.

Such famous writers as Charles Dickens, Bernard Show read different books and wrote their own books in the British Library.

There is a huge reading-room in the British Library. The diameter of this dome is 47 metres.

There are more 10 million books in this library. The British Library has a copy of each book which has been printed in Great Britain since 1757.

It will be 250 years from the founding of the British Museum in 2003.

THE TATE GALLERY

There are many sights in London. They are Westminster Abbey, Tower Bridge, Albert Hall (one of the biggest concert halls in London), Trafalgar Square and others.

If you are fond of paintings you'll go to the Tate Gallery.

The founder of this gallery was Henry Tate, a sugar manufacturer. He was a very rich man and collected paintings.

This gallery was founded in 1897. Most of the National Gallery collections of British paintings were taken to the Tate Gallery.

There are about 300 oils and 19,000 water-colours and drawings.

There are a lot of paintings by the 16th century English artists there. You can also see many works by the English painter William Turner. Most of his paintings are connected with the sea theme.

You can see many paintings by foreign artists of the 19-20th centuries in the Tate Gallery. There are some paintings by impressionists and post-impressionists there.

In the Tate Gallery one can see works by modern painters, Pablo Picasso among them.

There are many interesting sculptures there. The collection is rather big. Henry Moore's works can be seen in this gallery. He was a famous British sculptor.

The paintings of this gallery impress everyone who visits it.

THE TRETYAKOV GALLERY

There are many interesting galleries in our country. The Tretyakov Gallery is one of the famous and well-known picture galleries in our country and all over the world.

The State Tretyakov Gallery is situated in a Russian-looking building in the centre of Moscow. This gallery is named after its founder Peter Tretyakov. He began to collect Russian paintings in 1856. He wanted these paintings to be seen by people.

This gallery and collections of paintings were nationalized in 1918.

The first works in Tretyakov's collection were the paintings of the "Peredvizhniki". The collector bought paintings "Morning in a Pine Wood" by Shish-kin and "Ivan Tsarevich on the Grey Wolf" by Vasnetsov.

The gallery has got many halls. There are halls devoted to the great Russian painters of the 18th and 19th centuries. We can see pictures by such painters as Serov, Repin, Ivanov, Levitan and others.

You can see the landscapes "After Rain" and "Golden Autumn". These paintings by Levitan are beautiful. I like to see his paintings because he is one of my favourite artists. I compare his painting "Golden Autumn" with the poem "Autumn" by Pushkin.

There are some paintings by Repin in the Tretyakov Gallery. His paintings are connected with the history of our country. For example, his painting "Ivan Grozny Murders His Son Ivan". There are some portraits of Lev Tolstoy and a self-portrait of Repin in this hall.

I like the painting "Trinity" by Andrei Rublyov. This work reflects the life and soul of the Russian people.

This gallery has many new exhibits now. You can see works of the painters of the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century there. I like works by Gerasimov. I think that he is a very talented painter.

18. Books

BOOKS IN OUR LIFE

Books... I think that we can't live without them.

I consider that books are with us during all our life. When I was a child my parents read them to me. I was pleased to listen to the stories and tales. I learned a lot of interesting things from books. I remember, I liked thick books.

Later I could read myself. I like to read books about animals, nature and children.

I like to get presents on my birthday. I am happy if it is a book. It doesn't matter what kind of book it is. I like to read almost all books. If I have got time I like to spend it with my favourite book. When I was fifteen I was fond of reading too.

But I preferred to read books about travels. I travelled with the heroes of the stories. I saw many interesting places and learned a lot of important facts about other countries and people.

Now I like to read books on science. You can learn many things from books. I am sure that books play a very important role in my life.

Our family has got many books. All the members of our family buy books and read them. My mother says that books help us in self-education.

In ancient times books were written by hand. It was difficult to write a book with a pen. Then printing came into our life. Printing played an important role in the development of literature and culture.

Now there are a lot of books in the shops, there are many books in our flats. But it is difficult to buy all books which we want to read. That's why we get books in public libraries.

There are some problems in our life and sometimes it is difficult to solve them. I think that books can help us. Last year I read a very interesting book "An American Tragedy" by Theodore Dreiser. This novel was published at the beginning of the 20th century. The novel describes the tragic fate of a boy and a girl, Clyde and Roberta by name. It is a sad story. This novel was written many years ago, but it is popular nowadays. Books must be our friends during all our life.

19. Problems of city and country life

Where would you prefer to live in the city or in the country?

If I could choose where to live I would have the best of both places as each of them has its own advantages to say nothing of disadvantages.

What are the advantages of living in the modern city?

Life in the city is much easier than in the country - developed transport system, sewerage system, information, sports, shopping malls, etc. Modern men are too sophisticated for simple country pleasures. There is far more entertainment in the city than in the country. Cities offer high concentration of good things in life: big stores, restaurants, theatres, cinema, art galleries. Life is more convenient in a city: services are always better here. In the city people are more open-minded. It is possible to go out, make friends and never be cut off from them by weather conditions. Generally, people do not mind what you do in the city. In the city people have more chances to be employed, as the range of jobs is greater than in a village. Besides in the city people have more chances to succeed. Moreover, life is never dull in the city, people always have something to do here. The objections to city living are not convincing enough. People easily adapt to various inconveniences of city life. For example, noise and traffic are hardly noticeable to city-dwellers. In the city especially in our country people live in apartments with central heating, telephone, gas, electricity, radio, TV the Internet. Most people love cities. In 330 BC Aristotle wrote that by nature man belonged to a city. Many people love the busy city life. It is enough for them to visit a country at week-ends.

What brought about the growth of cities over the centuries?

Cities grew over the centuries because they served aims that could not have been served otherwise. Two thousand years ago most people lived in the countryside. It was not their choice. Today, almost half of humanity lives in cities. It does so because it wants to. Man has always lived in groups. It makes life safer and easier. Geography - rich soil, a safe harbour or navigable river, ample fresh water, easy defence, coal - was the start of many towns. In Europe towns grew over the strongholds of a local lord. Most of them developed as buying and selling centres; trade needed a market, and markets needed people.

How did towns serve their inhabitants?

Towns served their citizens very well if they in turn were served by them. During the Middle Ages when harvest failed, the nearby town offered hope of survival. All successful towns satisfied economic needs. For a peasant town was the only place where he might make a fortune. In the new industrial order, the city was the nerve centre, brining to a focus all dynamic economic forces: vast accumulation of capital, business and financial institutions, spreading railroad yards, factories, and armies of manual and clerical workers. For example, in the USA villages, attracting people from the countryside and from the land across the seas, grew into towns and towns into cities almost overnight.

Are there any disadvantages of living in the city?

Pollution is the greatest disadvantage of the city life of today. Polluted air is hanging like a brown cloud over cities. Dirt and smoke are pouring from the buildings of cites and factories. Polluted urban air causes respiratory distress, particularly in children, and elderly people. The increased number of motor vehicles not only jam the city streets but pollute the city air as well. Cars give a collection of pollutants. In bright, calm weather, sunlight turns the chemicals into a poison smog. All big cities have problems with air pollution. There was still nothing anywhere like "killer-smog" which caused some 3000-4000 deaths in London in December 1952. Mexico city's air is famously filthy, as is that of many Indian, Chinese, and East European cities. The exceeding output of industries and urban communities is harmful to the city aquatic systems. The result is a foul-smelling body of water running for a bath or dish washing. Noise pollution is the problem of big cities too. Urban garbage - like food, paper, and cans - on the ground or in the street is one more problem of cities. People don't always put their garbage in the garbage can. Urban garbage is ugly. It makes the city look dirty, and it spoils the view.

What are other disadvantages of living in a big city?

There are lots of other disadvantages of living in a big city. Today's cities are ballooning. Bombay in 1960 was a jam-packed city of 4m people. Now Mexico city holds around 18m people. "The rush-hour" with crowded streets, packed trains, full buses that happens twice a day is one of them. Cost of living is very high in the cities. In addition, people live under constant threat; life is not quiet in the cities, it causes stresses and heart decease. In the city people loose touch with land, rhythms of nature. Everyone who cares about his health tries to move out from the city. Cities are not fit to live in, man are born for countryside. Most people in Europe and America try to live in non-industrial cities, which are set down near big cities and can not be killed by pollution and traffic.

Do you like to stay in the countryside?

Yes, I do. I like to stay in the countryside.

Why do you like to stay in the countryside?

Well, in the countryside I enjoy such simple things of primary importance as sunlight and fresh air. Besides, living in the countryside is cheaper and safer than in a city. It provides people with more security. There is less crime and, of course, there is less traffic there. Life in the countryside is quiet, peaceful, and healthy. I like to be close to nature. Here people are friendly and it is much more pleasant in the countryside than in the city. Unfortunately, life in the countryside is rather hard. Working and living conditions are difficult, social and cultural life in the countryside is not full of entertainment. And annually more and more young people flee from the countryside for a better life in the city.

Is it difficult to find a job in the countryside?

Certainly, the problem of employment in the countryside is very crucial today. It is especially acute for the young people and professionals. As a rule there are few labour places for skilled agricultural workers and less for professionals. Although villages do need teachers and physicians, they can not provide them with the necessary facilities. There are few schools and clinics in the countryside. Sometimes there is one secondary school for several villages and children have to walk ten kilometres to study there. Usually either the village community is too poor to provide the children with a bus or the roads are too bad for the bus to run off them.

Can this problem be solved?

Surely, people should always be optimists and hope for a better life. Where there is a will there is a way. Nowadays we can witness the revival of some villages. So far they are few but annually their number is increasing.

20. International organizations and international co-operation

What international organizations do you know?

The formation of international organizations has been a 20th- century phenomenon. Nowadays there are more than 2,500 international organizations. Among them are more than 130 intergovernmental unions. The United Nations Organization is the most notable. Other important organizations are the European Economic Community, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the Organization of American States, and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance.

Why did people create international organizations?

The creation of international organizations on a wide scale in the 20th-century is the result of the progress in the technology of communication, transportation, warfare, and the spread of industrialization. These developments gave rise to a sense of interdependence among the peoples of the world, and made people recognize the importance of international co-operation to avoid the dangers, solve the problems, and use the opportunities which confront the society of nations on a world-wide scale. Some organizations are concerned only with single and relatively narrow problems, while others, such as the United Nations and the UNESCO, deal with a great variety of matters. Moreover, international organizations function as either intergovernmental or nongovernmental agencies.

Can you dwell on one of the international organizations?

Yes, I can tell you about the European Union.

When was the European Union created?

The European Union was created November 1, 1993 out of the European Economic Community.

How did the European Economic Community come into being?

The European Economic Community (EEC) was founded in 1957-58 to oversee the economic integration of the nations of Western Europe. In 1967 the EEC united together with the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Atomic Energy Community to form the European Communities, or EC.

What are member-states of the European Union?

The European Union is an organization of most of the states of western Europe that works toward and oversees the economic and political integration of these states. The European Union consists of the European Community. The original members of the EEC were Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom joined in 1973. Greece was admitted in 1981. Portugal and Spain entered in 1986. The former East Germany entered as part of re unified Germany in 1990. Greenland, a dependent state of Den mark that had been brought into the EC when under full Danish rule, withdrew in 1985. The Maastricht Treaty paved the way for other European countries to join the EU. Austria, Finland, and Sweden - all members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) - became members of the EU in 1995.

How often do the members of the European Union meet?

The European Union General Assembly meets once in four years. As a rule the European Union member-states have regular annual meetings.

What role do the international organizations play today?

The influence of the international organizations is great. They deal with political, social, and economic problems. They are concerned with the environmental problems as well. For example, such international organization as the United Nations is aimed at modifications of the national and international laws for the good of the people. The chief modification introduced by the United Nations Charter is the limitation of the rights of subjects of international law under international customary law to threaten or resort to armed reprisals and war.

What are the results of the activity of the international organizations?

The results of the activity of the international organizations are significant The UN General Assembly passed a number of resolutions and declarations. They are the Nuremberg Principles that dealt with crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity; genocide; the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; the right of peoples and nations to self-determination; permanent sovereignty over natural resources; denuclearization; and non-intervention. The most important of them is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This general agreement that all human beings are entitled to some basic rights marked the birth of the international and universal recognition of human rights.

21. Human rights

What document guarantees international human rights?

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights guarantees international human rights. The United Nations General Assembly passed this document in 1948.

What international organizations are responsible for protecting human rights?

International concern for human rights has been evident outside of the United Nations. The Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe, which met in Helsinki in 1973-75, produced the Helsinki Final Act. The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, which first met in 1950, produced the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the European Social Charter; the Ninth Pan-American Conference of 1948 adopted the American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man; and the Organization of African Unity in 1981 adopted the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights. There are also a number of private groups involved in human-rights advocacy. One of the best-known international human rights agencies is Amnesty International (founded in 1961). This organization is responsible for broad casting violations of human rights, especially freedoms of speech and religion and the right of political dissent.

When was the notion of human right worked out?

Human rights belong to an individual as a consequence of being human. They refer to a wide range of values that are universal for all human beings. The origins of the concept of human rights are traced to the Greco-Roman natural-law doctrines of stoicism. According to the doctrines a universal force penetrates all creation and that human conduct should therefore be judged ac cording to the law of nature, and in the «law of nations», in which certain universal rights were extended beyond the rights of Roman citizenship. From the Renaissance until the 17th century the beliefs and practices of society so changed that the idea of human (or natural) rights took hold as a general social need and reality. The modernist conception of natural law (natural rights) was elaborated in the 17th and 18th centuries. The struggle against political absolutism in the late 18th and the 19th centuries further advanced the concept of human rights. In the 20th century the notion of human rights achieved universal acceptance.

What are the basic human rights?

The right to life and liberty are the basic human rights. They are proclaimed in the Covenant on Civil and Political rights and its optional protocol. One of the most vital rights granted in this Covenant is the right of people to self-determination. This document guarantees such rights as personal security, equality before the law, fair trial, freedom of religion, freedom of opinion and expression, peaceful assembly, right to marry, participation in public affairs and elections, and minority rights. Propaganda of war is prohibited. The right to security and privacy of person is very important too. The document insures fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.

Do people have any social guarantees?

Yes. Certainly we have such guarantees. Social guarantees of people are set forth in the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural life. This document deals with the right to work, the conditions of work, trade unions, social security, protection of the family, standards of living and health, education and cultural life. The European Commission of Human Rights and the European Court of Human Rights provided the most effective means for the implementation of the protection of human rights. The efforts of government in this area should be guided by these two Covenants.

What can you say about human rights in Russia?

Now, when Russia has entered the way of democracy it is directed by the international covenants in the field of human right as the rest democratic countries of the world. Despite its great economic, political, and social difficulties the fundamental rights of the people are guaranteed by the Russian government. The protection of human rights is secured by the Russian constitution. Such human rights as freedom of religion, freedom of opinion and expression, peaceful assembly, right to marry, participation in public affairs and elections are guaranteed and embodied in different political, cultural, and social institutions, religious confessions, secular organizations, in a variety of mass media productions. Although not all human rights are equally put into life in our country so far, we are moving along the way of democracy and the new generation will enjoy all the human rights which are set forth in the international covenants.

22. Culture of the youth

What is implied under culture?

Culture is known to have many meanings. One of them refers to the spiritual and material achievements of humanity. On the whole it is possible to distinguish three kinds of culture. They are elite culture, folk culture and popular culture. These cultures are closely connected with one another and one culture is part of the others. Elite culture is a highly developed sphere, it is comprised of painting, sculpture, architecture, literature, music. Folk culture is the culture of everyday life and routine relations of social life. Folk culture consists of traditional knowledge and practice. It is like a habit of people, thus this culture does not change very quickly Popular culture is mass culture. It is a professionally organized sphere that works for a large mass of people. Popular culture gives people, especially young, standards to be what they like.

What can you say about the culture of the youth?

Today the life of many young people in Russia as well as in other countries of the world is influenced by popular culture. The youth follow certain stereotypes that are imposed on them through TV, movies, and music. In their lifestyles they try to imitate the images of their idols. Other young people are sports and music fans. They frequent stadiums and huge concert halls. They follow their idols in their tours throughout the country and support them. Unfortunately they are intolerant to those who do not share their view. It is a specific aspect of the youth sub-culture that cannot be ignored.

Do many young people follow this pattern?

No, they don't. Many young people have other interests. For some of them getting knowledge is of primary importance. They are fond of reading serious books, listening to serious music. They go to the conservatory and theatres. They are engaged in Hi-Tech through the Internet.

What do you and your friends prefer?

We prefer music. It plays a very important part in the life of young men. Tastes differ, and the music scene is changing. Young people like different kinds of music. Some like disco music they can dance to. Some like loud, heavy rock music. Some like the popular reggae sound. Some like South American rhythm. Many of them are fond of jazz. Madonna and Bruce Sprigsteen from the USA and George Michael from Britain also have huge numbers of fans. As for me, my friends and I enjoy Celtic folk music. My favourite groups that perform Celtic music are «Chieftains» and «River dance».

Is Celtic folk music popular in Russia?

Yes, it is. It is very popular. For example, St. Patrick's Day, the major Irish holiday, is celebrated throughout Moscow. You can hear Celtic music everywhere on this day. It should be said that festivals of Irish music are regularly held in Russia, hosting groups performing Celtic music from Ireland, Great Britain, the USA and Russia.

Do you mean that there are groups in Russia that play Celtic music?

Yes, there are. In such groups as «Slua Si», «Pucken' Piper», and «Reelroads» Russian young men perform Irish and Scottish music.

What can you say about Russian rock music?

I am not a fan of Russian rock. But there are a lot of rock musicians in our country. Such groups as «Alisa», «DDT» and «Mumiy Troll» are very popular among Russian young people. It is interesting to note that many young people still listen to the music of the groups that do not exist any more. I mean «Kino» and «Nautilus Pompilius».

What books do Russian young people read?

Many young people are fond of stories and novels written by Victor Pelevin and Boris Akunin. Their works are examples of such literary trends as post modernism and post Constructivism. Besides, many young people like to read science fiction literature. The novels by the Strougutskys's are best read even today. Among the young science fiction writers the novels by Serge Lukjanenko are very popular. A lot of young people are fond of are science fiction and fantasy.

Why are science fiction and fantasy so popular in Russia?

These literary trends are poplar not only in Russia but all over the world. The best read foreign fantasy writer is J.R.R. Tolkien. His books really ushered in a new era in literature. J.R.R. Tolkien won fame due to his original epic trilogy «The Lord of the Rings». This outstanding work by the mid-1960s became a sociocultural phenomenon. While working on his trilogy J.R.R. Tolkien created «The Hobbit» which was an introduction to it. Both «The Hobbit» and «The Lord of the Rings» are set in a mythical past. «The Lord of the Rings» chronicles the struggle between various good and evil kingdoms for possession of a magical ring that can shift the balance of power in the world. The trilogy is remarkable for its fantasy types - elves, dwarves, hobbits - and its sustained imaginative storytelling. It is regarded as a rare, successful modern version of the heroic epic.

Do you know anything about urban sub-cultures of the youth?

It is generally held that sub-culture is the culture of those who are dissatisfied with their place in society. On the whole Teds, Mods, Rockers, Bikers, Skinheads and Punks are the sub-cultures of the politically or economically weak segments of the society.

What do recent sub-cultures protest against?

As is known, recent sub-cultures reflect a refusal to con form in post-1945 society. For example, the sub-culture of Rastafairians was based on nostalgia for a lost world. They idealized Africa.

Who were Rastafairians?

Rastafairians were Afro-Caribbean immigrants in Britain. They dreamed of golden age in Africa before the slave traders came. They viewed Britain as part of the Biblical 'Babylon', the land of slavery, and Africa especially Ethiopia as the 'Promised Land'. These Rastafairians began to wear distinctive clothes, camouflage jackets, large hats in the red, gold and green colours of Ethiopia and put their long, uncut hair in 'dreadlocks'. They took to speaking in a special 'patois' or dialect. Rastafairians were defiant until they became a recognized and legitimate minority group in Great Britain at the end of the 1980s.

What made the greatest impact on the development of urban sub-cultures?

Black music which came to Britain through the Rastafairians made its impact on urban sub-cultures. Such types as ska, reggae and 'Hip-hop' evolved in the Caribbean and the United States, developed in Britain during the 1970s, came to Russia in the 1990s In Britain reggae music is held as powerful expression of dissidents. In our country reggae is the music of the teenagers. Many sub-cultures developed as a result of music fusion of black and white cultures.

Can you give an example of such fusion?

Skinheads developed in the 1970s in England out of an older cult, the Mods. They imitated black mannerism and fashion and danced to reggae. At the same time the white teenagers who loved the music and copied the clothes of the Afro-Asian immigrants were violent to them. They wore heavy boots, jeans and braces, and shave their hair or cut it very short. They aggressively sought to recover a crude working-class identity which their parents' generation had largely abandoned. In the main, Skinheads dreamed about the revival of the traditional working-class culture. Now this movement is in decline in Britain but it flourishes in East European countries and Russia. The Skinheads in Great Britain were identified with extreme right wing views.

What can you say about Hippies?

Hippies belonged to the opposing young people of the late 1960s. Their forms of protest corresponded to the standards of their contemporaneous society. Coming against the war in Vietnam the young Americans, who associated themselves with Hippies, established their communes. The movement spread throughout Europe. Hippies led a primitive life in their own countries and then moved to the East. They rebelled against the values of their society. Their idol was J.R.R. Tolkien, who created the fairy tale of the twentieth century. His epic trilogy «The Lord of the Rings» became the guidelines for Hippies.

What do you know about Punks?

As far as I know, Punks appeared in Britain in the 1970s as a reaction to the glamour of the pop star world of the 1960s. Punks, like the Skinheads, are regressive, but inactive and politically indifferent. Their real attraction to the young has been their ability to insult middle-aged opinion, especially among the guardians of social values. They have done it by using vulgar language, wearying green and pink hair, dressing in torn clothes, mutilating their bodies with safety pins. Now Punks are in decline in Britain but are popular in our country. Punks, Skinheads and Rastafairians, each in their own way asserted that they resided in a world, as they understood it, alienated by class and race. Generally they were young people with low self-respect, who did poorly at school. Joining a gang was a means of finding a status. They opposed the traditional world in which they were settled as fiasco elements.

Are there other cults within urban sub-culture?

Yes, there are. «Heavy metal» is one of them. This music of failure is widely despised by those who enjoy pop, reggae or soul. Unlike other rebel cults the followers of heavy metal behave them selves as victims. They wear gothic script and grinning sculls, expression of disheartened interests. It is known that cults arise and disappear over periods of a decade or two. Ragga and Gothic arose in the 1980s. Raggas are American-inspired. They are clothed in baseball caps, tracksuits trousers and chunky trainers. Gothic is a blend of 1970s Punk and 1960s Hippies. «Goths» wear their hair very long and dyed black, and dress in cheap, loose clothes. They put on make-up, looking very pale with cosmetics around the eyes. They are not aggressive, and seem to feel nostalgia for the youth culture and music of the 1960s. At the end of the 1980s Acid House was a fashionable sub-culture. It fascinated thousands juveniles who had not earlier belonged to a cult. Acid House guaranteed fun and all-night dancing. It had its own music which was another variation on black music from America («House Music»). By the 1990s this movement was also in decline. It is interesting to note that sub-cultures follow a cycle. At first they shock then provoke a strong response. As soon as the sub-culture gains momentum it magnetizes youth in search of rebel unity. Many adopt it for fun, and play at rebellion in their leisure time. The sub-culture rapidly ceases to express serious dissent. In the end it becomes another recognized and colourful part of urban culture.

23. Youth and unemployment

What do you know about unemployment?

Unemployment is the condition of one who is capable of working, actively seeking work, but unable to find it. It is important to note, that to be considered unemployed a person must be an active member of the labour force and in search of work. Statistics on unemployment collected and analyzed by government labour offices in most countries is considered to be the chief indicator of economic health. In the United States an unemployment rate of two percent is often cited as a «base» rate.

What do you think about the problem of unemployment in Russia?

The problem of the youth unemployment is one of the most important ones. The number of the young people looking for job is constantly increasing In Russia young people are looking for job not only for the sake of earning money, but because they want to be independent from their parents. Moreover, job gives the young people a chance to adjust themselves to the real life of adults and stir their ambitions.

Is it possible for Russian school-leavers to find any job?

Yes, it is. But unfortunately, they are able to find employment only for shorter than normal periods. School-leavers can be part- time workers, seasonal workers, day or casual workers. In general their job is not welcomed. Very often preference is given to adult people. To ensure a balance of working groups in our society the government should work out some social employment programmes.

Is it easy to find a job for a graduate in Russia?

It depends upon the ability of the person, his qualification and an element of luck by which he or she can find a job. Sometimes the graduates are overqualified for the jobs offered to them. But if the person is persistent he will always find the job he is looking for. Unfortunately not all the required professions are well paid Underpayment can also be regarded as a kind of unemployment Certainly to find a job for a student or a graduate is easier than for a school-leaver.

Have you ever tried to apply for a job?

No, I have not. But my friend have. And the results are not optimistic. Employees prefer to hire an undergraduate than a school-leaver, who can sit with a baby or wash dishes in a cafe.

What are you going to do after finishing school?

Unqualified jobs can be good for pupils or students. But if one wants to get a good job and reach something in this life one must continue education. I am going to enter the University. I want to become a journalist. Journalists are always at the forefront of the people's activity.

Are your friends going to enter institutions of higher education?

Some of them are going to enter universities, others are dreaming about colleges, others are intending to work and study at one and the same time.

What do you know about the problem of unemployment in Europe?

In Western Europe, unemployment is by far the most important issue. When presented with the choice of 15 different areas of concern, west European nations put unemployment either first or in the top three. Europeans felt that unemployment was the main cause of poverty. Elsewhere in the world, people were likely to choose lack of education as the main reason. Europeans also put great emphasis on insufficient welfare funding. People from the former eastern bloc put slightly less emphasis on unemployment and more on drug and alcohol abuse. These countries also tend to be more concerned about the environment than about economic growth.

Вот, например, вопросы из демо-версии:
Give a talk about libraries.
- what we need libraries for,
- whether you use your school library, why/why not
- what you prefer: using libraries or Internet resources, why.

И если Вы расскажете что-нибудь вроде:
Я понятия не имею, что такое библиотеки и зачем они нужны. Помню, что мама как-то рассказывала, что, вроде, там хранятся книги и их можно почитать, но я не уверена.
Есть ли у нас школе библиотека, я не знаю. У нас много всяких закоулков, я не везде была, может, где-нибудь и есть библиотека. Но я в ней не была, потому как не знаю, где она находится.
Естественно, я предпочитаю интернет, потому как билиотекой я пользоваться не умею, и не знаю, что это. А чтобы выйти в интернет, достаточно нажать кнопочку, и для этого даже не обязательно уметь читать".

Такой вариант ответа тоже возможен!