Рабочая тетрадь для практических работ по дисциплине «Иностранный язык (английский)» в разделе «Профессионально-направленный модуль» для специальности 54.02.04 Реставрация
учебно-методическое пособие по английскому языку по теме

РАБОЧАЯ

ТЕТРАДЬ

ДЛЯ ПРАКТИЧЕСКИХ РАБОТ ПО ДИСЦИПЛИНЕ

«ИНОСТРАННЫЙ ЯЗЫК(АНГЛИЙСКИЙ)» В РАЗДЕЛЕ

«ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНО-НАПРАВЛЕННЫЙ МОДУЛЬ»

ДЛЯ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТИ 54.02.04 РЕСТАВРАЦИЯ

Коровкина Татьяна Владимировна

Содержание

Введение

Рабочая тетрадь предназначена для практических работ по дисциплине «Иностранный язык» в разделе «Профессионально направленное содержание» для специальности 54.02.04 Реставрация. Основное назначение рабочей тетради – закрепить и активизировать языковой и речевой материал раздела «Профессионально направленное содержание», автоматизировать лексико-грамматические навыки при работе с профессионально-ориентированными текстами. Тексты сопровождаются методически грамотно построенным комплексом упражнений, помогающим обучаемым совершенствовать навыки и умения самостоятельной работы с текстом. Лексико-грамматические упражнения нацелены на быстрое и качественное запоминание профессиональных терминов, используемых по специальности Реставрация, повторение и практическое применение грамматических правил на базе профессионально-ориентированных текстов.

Рабочая тетрадь состоит из дести уроков (Units) и одного приложения (Appendix 1). Материал каждого раздела (Unit) предусматривает последовательное, поэтапное изучение определенной темы, связанной с будущей профессиональной деятельностью обучающихся и принципов, применяемых в практике дизайнерской работы. В основу каждого урока положен принцип развития речевой деятельности: чтения и устной речи. Специальные фонетические и морфологические упражнения способствуют лучшему усвоению звукового ряда английского языка. Приложение (Appendix 1) включают словарь профессиональных терминов и глоссарий.

Широкий спектр разнообразных практических заданий, организующих самостоятельную работу, требует от обучающихся творческого отношения при их выполнении (наличие заданий повышенной трудности), позволяет реализовать личностно-ориентированный подход при работе с обучающимися в разным уровнем подготовки и с разными интересами. Задания моделируют ситуации или используют реальные ситуации в целях анализа данного случая, поиска альтернативных решений и принятия оптимального решения проблем.

В тетрадь включены задания, готовящие обучающихся к объективному контролю и самоконтролю в процессе изучения английского языка.

Рабочая тетрадь соответствует уровню подготовки студентов по дисциплине «Иностранный язык (английский)» в разделе «Профессионально направленное содержание» для специальности 54.02.04 Реставрация.

Методические указания по изучению дисциплины.

В соответствии с ФГОС по дисциплине Иностранный язык (английский) для специальности 54.02.04 Реставрация студент должен:

УМЕТЬ: вести беседу на иностранном языке в стандартных ситуациях общения, соблюдая нормы речевого этикета, опираясь на изученную тематику и усвоенный лексико-грамматический материал; рассказывать о себе, своей семье, друзьях, своих интересах и планах на будущее, сообщать краткие сведения о своей стране и стране изучаемого языка на иностранном языке; делать краткие сообщения, описывать события/явления (в рамках пройденных тем), передавать основное содержание, основную мысль прочитанного или услышанного, выражать свое отношение к прочитанному/услышанному, кратко характеризовать персонаж на иностранном языке; понимать основное содержание несложных аутентичных текстов на иностранном языке, относящихся к разным коммуникативным типам речи (сообщение, рассказ), уметь определять тему текста, выделять главные факты в тексте, опуская второстепенные; читать аутентичные тексты на иностранном языке разных жанров с пониманием основного содержания, устанавливать логическую последовательность основных фактов текста; используя различные приемы смысловой переработки текста (языковую догадку, анализ, выборочный перевод), оценивать полученную информацию, выражать свое мнение на иностранном языке; читать текст на иностранном языке с выборочным пониманием нужной или интересующей информации; ориентироваться в иноязычном письменном и аудиотексте: определять его содержание по заголовку, выделять основную информацию; использовать двуязычный словарь; использовать переспрос, перифраз, синонимичные средства, языковую догадку в процессе устного и письменного общения на иностранном языке;

ЗНАТЬ: основные значения изученных лексических единиц (слов, словосочетаний); основные способы словообразования в иностранном языке; основные нормы речевого этикета, принятые в стране изучаемого языка; признаки изученных грамматических явлений в иностранном языке; особенности структуры и интонации различных коммуникативных типов простых и сложных предложений изучаемого иностранного языка; о роли владения иностранными языками в современном мире, особенностях образа жизни, быта, культуры стран изучаемого языка;

Структура практических занятий UNIT 1 – UNIT 10 включает в себя:

1. Texts. Тексты из оригинальных источников, раскрывающие фундаментальные понятия изобразительного искусства, реставрационного искусства и рассказывающие об основных направлениях в искусстве, реставрации и сохранении.
2. Exercises. Предтекстовые задания, облегчающие понимание текста; задания на проверку понимания содержания, задания на развитие и совершенствование грамматических умений и навыков, а также задания, стимулирующие развитие навыков на базе проблематики и словаря прочитанных текстов. Благодаря используемой системе упражнений данное пособие позволяет обучить студентов комплексу умений и навыков анализа смыслового содержания и логико-коммуникативной организации текста, необходимых как для полноты понимания читаемого, так и для его адекватного использования в речевой деятельности. Упражнения, направленные на обучение пониманию специальных материалов и использованию их в практической деятельности, прорабатывают основные проблемные области грамматики и словообразования.
3. В конце каждого раздела имеются вопросы, которые могут использоваться либо для выполнения домашних заданий, либо выступать в качестве тем для обсуждения во время занятий (Questions for revision).
4. Если обучающийся в своей работе сталкивается с термином, требующим перевода или толкования, и не обнаруживает его в настоящем рабочей тетради, огромное количество профессиональных переводчиков, работающих на сайте www.proz.com, помогут решить любые языковые проблемы.
5. Приложение 1. (Appendix 1). Содержит языковой комментарий (Глоссарий), представляющий собой словарь с наиболее частотной лексикой и выражениями, встречающимися в сфере дизайнерской работы. Содержит лингвистический комментарий, объясняющий смысл основных профессиональных терминов.

UNIT 1. Византийское искусство миниатюры. (Byzantine art of Miniatures)

TEXT 1. Byzantine art of Miniatures

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

... From the first half of the fourth century to the end of the seventh Byzantine art developed in a normal and healthy manner. In spite of poverty, the burden of taxation, and the distractions of war and theological controversy, architecture, painting, and the minor arts flourished. Many of the artists who lived in these centuries had ability of a high order, and some of them were endowed with real genius. The period was a brilliant one in the history of Byzantine art, and it has justly been called the First Golden Age.

The chief architectural work produced in the Byzantine period was the great church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, which is now used by the Mohammedans as a mosque. It was planned on a magnificent scale and was erected by the Emperor Justinian at enormous expense. The choicest building materials of all kinds were collected in various parts of the Empire and transported to the capital for the construction of the church. In splendor and magnificence Hagia Sophia had no rivals, and it was the embodiment of the spirit of the time. It marked at once the beginning and the culmination of a new style; and whatever may be said concerning its defects and imperfections, this marvelous work is one of the most inspiring products of architectural genius in the whole world.

Many Byzantine mosaics, being of an enduring nature, have survived in Saloniki, Ravenna, and elsewhere. Scenes from the life of Christ, arranged in chronological order, were a favorite theme for the artists of the sixth century. Some of these early mosaics, as for example those in the Church of San Vitale at Ravenna, have great artistic merit.

The art of painting was represented by frescoes and icons. Most of the frescoes, however, have perished, because they were easily destroyed by dampness and water as well as by fire, and most of the buildings which they adorned have disappeared in the course of time. Nor is it at all surprising that very few icons of early date have been preserved. Since they were much used in popular devotion and were easily carried from place to place, they were in far greater danger of being lost or destroyed than mosaics or miniatures. The few remaining examples, such as the busts of St. Sergius and St. Bacchus in Kiev, are executed in encaustic and resemble in style and technique the portraits painted on wooden mummy tablets of the Graeco-Roman period which have been found in the Fayum. The most striking characteristic of all these pictures is their realism.

Miniatures were painted on the leaves of books, and hence they were not exposed to the hazards which endangered frescoes and icons. Several beautifully illustrated manuscripts, or fragments oi manuscripts, dating from the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries, are preserved in various European libraries. Some of them have already been mentioned. Several schools of miniature painting flourished during the second, third, and fourth centuries. The chief centers were Alexandria in Egypt, Antioch in Syria, and Ephesus in Asia Minor; and each had its own distinctive type. The standing figures of the evangelists originated in Alexandria, whereas the seated types arose in Antioch and Ephesus. The works produced in Antioch and in Ephesus were distinguished from each other by certain unmistakable characteristics.

Sculpture reached the acme of its development in Greece during the classical age, and it might naturally be expected that it would continue to flourish in Byzantine times. This, however, was not the case. In the earlier period sculpture was recognized as one of the major arts and was cultivated for its own sake, but later it was employed only for the purpose of decoration and ornament. This loss of prestige has often been attributed to the hostility of the Church. The latter, it is said, felt none too well disposed towards an art which had long been used to glorify the gods and heroes of paganism. The fact, however, is that from the fifth century after Christ onward the Orient was a potent factor in Christian art. Oriental influence could be found everywhere. In Syria and Mesopotamia sculpture played a subordinate part, being used only for ornament and decoration. Moreover, it must be remembered that Orientals were especially fond of color, which they preferred to form.

Although Greek and Oriental churches were not adorned with statues of Christ and the saints, nevertheless the influence of the statuary’s art can often be detected in the mosaics and frescoes with which they are embellished. The pose of the figures depicted in these works is the same as that which is seen in ancient statues of philosophers, poets, and orators. These statues were taken by the miniaturists as models for the pictures with which they illustrated manuscripts, and the miniatures in turn were copied by the mosaicists and fresco painters on the walls of churches and other buildings. Thus to some extent the spirit of Greek sculpture survived in Christian art.

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the Russian words:

Exercise 4. Use one of the nouns given in the box to fill in each gap:

1. The pose of the figures depicted in these works is the same as that which is seen in ancient statues of ___________, poets, and orators.        

2. This loss of prestige has often been attributed to the hostility of the ________.

3. In Syria and Mesopotamia sculpture played a subordinate part, being used only for ________ and decoration.

4. The works produced in Antioch and in Ephesus were _____ from each other by certain unmistakable characteristics.

5. Several schools of ______ painting flourished during the second, third, and fourth centuries

6. Since they were much used in popular _____ and were easily carried from place to place, they were in far greater danger of being lost or destroyed than mosaics or miniatures.

7. The most _____ characteristic of all these pictures is their realism.

8. Scenes from the life of ____, arranged in chronological order, were a favorite theme for the artists of the sixth century.

9. It was planned on a magnificent ______ and was erected by the Emperor Justinian at enormous expense

10. The period was a brilliant one in the history of Byzantine art, and it has justly been called the First ______ Age.

Exercise 5. Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F) according to the text:

1. From the first half of the seventh century to the end of the tenth Byzantine art developed in a normal and healthy manner.

2. Architecture, painting, and the minor arts didn’t flourish from the first half of the fourth century to the end of the seventh Byzantine

3. The period was a brilliant one in the history of Byzantine art, and it has been called the First Golden Age.

4. The great church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is now used by the Mohammedans as a museum.

5. Scenes from the life of Christ, arranged in chronological order, were a favorite theme for the artists of the sixth century.

6. Since icons were much used in popular devotion and were easily carried from place to place, they were in far greater danger of being lost or destroyed than mosaics or miniatures.

7. Miniatures were painted on the leaves of books, however they were exposed to the hazards which endangered frescoes and icons either.

8. In the earlier period sculpture was not recognized as one of the major arts and was not cultivated for its own sake.

9. In Syria and Mesopotamia sculpture played a subordinate part, being used only for ornament and decoration.

10. The pose of the figures depicted in these works is the same as that which is seen in ancient statues of philosophers, poets, and orators.

Exercise 6. Translate the sentences into Russian. Pay attention to the Comparative pattern “the more... the better” (“чем (больше)... тем (лучше)”)

1. The higher the price of the goods, the fewer people are ready to buy them.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

2. The more money I get, the more things I can buy.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

3. The bigger the house is, the more money it will cost.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

4. The longer the text, the longer it takes me to translate it.

______________________________________________________________________

5. The more work he has, the happier he is.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

6. The older you get, the more difficult it becomes to find a job.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

7. The longer the journey is, the more expensive the ticket is.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Exercise 7. Match the description of art directions with its name:

Exercise 8. Answer the following questions:

1. What period in Byzantine art has been called the First Golden Age and why?

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. By what is the art of painting of that period mostly represented?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Why haven’t the frescoes and icons of that period been preserved?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. What do you know about the construction of the great church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Where did the art of miniature-painting originate?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. Why did sculpture lose its prestige?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. In what form has the spirit of Greek sculpture survived in Christian art?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Questions for revision

Exercise 1. Write a short summery of the text describing one the following:

1. The characteristics of the chief architectural work produced in the Byzantine period.

2. The art of painting represented by frescoes and icons.

3. The characteristics of schools of miniature painting of Egypt, Syria and Asia. _____________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT 2. Минойское искусство и его влияние на историю Древней Цивилизации. (The Discoveries of Minoan Art and their Bearing on the history of Ancient Civilization).

TEXT 1. The Discoveries of Minoan Art and their Bearing on the history of Ancient Civilization.

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

The covering up of a complex of apartments on the north-east, and the simultaneous submergence of many floor deposits, mean that Middle Minoan III, like the two preceding periods, was closed by a general catastrophe. The Late Minoan I that succeeds it is the period of many of the masterpieces of Minoan art already described. The villa of Hagia Triada, with its steatite vases, cat and bird fresco, and sarcophagus with the sacrificial procession, is to be placed here. So probably is the royal draughtboard of the palace of Knossos. The linear writing of Class A is now in regular use. Bronze swords have succeeded the daggers whose blades have been gradually lengthening during the Middle Minoan period. Naturalistic designs are still dominant, not only in the carved work of Hagia Triada, which gives us such vivid pictures of human life in peace or war, but in the flower and shell designs of the painted vases. The white on dark of the last period has now given place to a dark on light, and we find brown or red designs on a ground that varies from buff to a yellowish pink. A good example is a tall slight «filler» from Zakro, with its shells and sea anemones, and an almost identical vase, made, probably by the same artist, from Palaikastro. There is a blending of the two styles in a still more beautiful vase from the Lakkos or pit at Zakro, on which a delicate design of waving, water-lilies is painted in white upon a red-browrn slip. The curious point about this white design is that it was painted after the rest of the vase, with its red-brown ornament upon a pinkish clay, had already been fired and glazed; itself it was never fired, glazed or varnished, but, as its discoverer, Mr. Hogarth, tells us, can be removed with the lightest touch of the fingers. Another simple design of the period is that of reeds or grasses, such as are found on the graceful «flowerpots» from Phylakopi in Melos, in which the small hole pierced through the base suggests that this is not only a convenient name for describing a shape, but that they were really used as pots for plants. Phylakopi indeed shows other close connections with the art of this period, as it did with that of its predecessor, and the latest elements in the second city are contemporary. The Shaft graves at Mycenae too, begin in this period, and stretch on into the next. It is the first time that the word «Mycenaean» can be legitimately introduced into our story.

With Late Minoan II we reach the great architectural period of Minoan art —the period of the Throne Room and the Basilika Hall of the Royal Villa, the period of the great scheme of fresco wall decoration which survives to us in the Cupbearer and the groups of spectators watching the Palace sports. Whole areas were covered with stone carvings or painted plaster. The plaster- work varied from the sculpturesque high relief of the Bull’s Head, and the low modelling of the King with the Peacock Plumes, to the more usual flat-surfaced frescoes. These were either life-sized, like the Cupbearer, or miniature, like the scenes from the Palace sports. The two kinds of fresco seem to have been freely used side by side on the same wall, and were framed in decorative designs of wonderful variety, in which lozenge and zig-zag and fishscale and tooth and dentil ornament played their part along with triglyphs and rosettes and every kind of spiral. Even the decoration of the most characteristic vases of this period shows the influence of the architectural spirit, their rosettes and conventional flowers being imitated from the fresco borders and stone friezes of the Palace. Naturalism, where it survives in pottery, borrows its flowers and birds and fishes from the scenes depicted in the frescoes themselves, just as the more conventional style borrows from their decorative framework. On all vases alike the last traces of polychromy or of a monochrome light design on a dark ground have disappeared. We have now what used to be called the «best Mycenaen» style of dark on light; the design being of a lustrous glaze varying from red-brown to black according to the success with which it hides what is beneath it; while the ground is buff clay slip polished by hand on the terracotta body of the vase.

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find English equivalents for the Russian words in the text:

Exercise 4. Use a word given in the box to fill in each gap:

1. The Late Minoan I that succeeds it is the period of many of the masterpieces of _____ already described.

2. The villa of Hagia Triada, with its steatite vases, cat and bird fresco, and _____ with the sacrificial procession, is to be placed here.

3. _____ have succeeded the daggers whose blades have been gradually lengthening during the Middle Minoan period.        

4. The white on ____ of the last period has now given place to a dark on light.

5. A good example is a tall slight «filler» from Zakro, with its shells and sea anemones, and an almost identical vase, made, probably by the same artist, from ______.        

6. The curious point about this white design is that it was painted after the rest of the vase, with its red-brown ornament upon a _____ clay.

7. Another simple design of the period is that of reeds or grasses, such as are found on the graceful _____ from Phylakopi in Melos.        

8. With Late Minoan II we reach the great architectural period of Minoan art —the period of the _____ and the Basilika Hall of the Royal Villa.

9. The two kinds of fresco seem to have been freely used ____ on the same wall, and were framed in decorative designs of wonderful variety

10. On all vases alike the last traces of polychromy or of a ____ light design on a dark ground have disappeared.

Exercise 5. Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F) according to the text:

1. The villa of Hagia Triada, with its steatite vases, cat and bird fresco, and sarcophagus with the sacrificial procession, is to be placed here.

2. Bronze swords have not succeeded the daggers whose blades have been gradually lengthening during the Middle Minoan period.

3. The white on dark of the last period has now given place to a dark on dark, and we find brown or red designs on a ground that varies from buff to a yellowish pink.

4. The plaster- work varied from the sculpturesque high relief of the Bull’s Head, and the low modelling of the King with the Peacock Plumes, to the more usual flat-surfaced frescoes

5. The two kinds of fresco don’t seem to have been freely used side by side on the same wall.

6. The decoration of few characteristic vases of this period shows the influence of the architectural spirit.

7. Naturalism, where it survives in pottery, borrows its flowers and birds and fishes from the scenes depicted in the frescoes themselves, just as the more conventional style borrows from their decorative framework.

Exercise 6. Give English equivalents for the Russian expressions given in brackets and translate the sentences into Russian:

1. The boy’s bright eyes spoke of his intelligence (1) (точно так же, как) his ready smile was a token of his good nature.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Andersen’s fairy tales are enjoyed by children and grown-ups (2) (в равной степени).

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. The building shows elements of the old classic tradition (3) (наряду) with features of the new style.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. The corner medallions on the facade (4) (окаймлены) in wreaths of laurels.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. We had better start ahead at once; (5) (остальная часть группы) will join us at the foot of the mountain.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. The hybrid style in English architecture labelled ’King Jamie’s Gothic’ (6) (уступил место) to what may be called the English Renaissance.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. Painting on wooden panels (7) (широко применялось) since ancient times.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. (8) (Любопытной особенностью) about the finger-ring in our possession is that it is said to have belonged to Ceasar Borgia and contained poison.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 7. Use the right form of the verbs.

1. Listen to him, please. He (1) (speaks, is speaking) Chinese.
2. She often (2) (speaks, is speaking) French when she (3) (travels, is travelling) in France.
3. Mary is in the office now. She is very busy. She (4)(works, is working) on the computer.
4. What foreign languages (5) (does your friend learn, is your friend learning) now?
5. What (6) (do you read, are you reading) now?
6. The family (7) (owns, is owning) a big house in the country.
7. Most of the students (8) (were listening , listened) to the teacher but Mary (9) (was reading, read) a history book. She (10) (hated, was hating) maths.
8. These people never (11) (owned, were owning) a house. They always (12) (lived, were living) in apartments.
9. Everyone (13) (was reading, read) quietly when the door (14) (was opening, opened) and a policeman came in.
10. The dentist’s waiting room was full of people. Some (15) (were reading, read), others (16) (were just turning, just turned) pages.

Questions for revision

Exercise 1. Write a short summery of the text describing one the following:

1. The Late Minoan I that succeeds - the period of many of the masterpieces of Minoan art.

2. The Late Minoan II - the great architectural period of Minoan art. __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT 3. Городская революция Древнего Востока. (The Urban Revolution in The Ancient East).

TEXT 1. The Urban Revolution in The Ancient East.

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

The Uruk period has been conventionally defined by the appearance of unpainted red-slipped and grey pottery at level — XIV in a test-pit sunk through some 20 m. of stratified occupation debris from the court of the prehistoric Limestone Temple (-V) in the E-anna at Erech. These plain dark-faced wares, together with an equally plain drab ware, replace the painted Ubaid fabrics and mark a breach with the old ceramic tradition. At the same level appear cups and jugs with handles that look equally foreign. How far other innovations, such as the use of the bow, certainly observable in the Uruk period, coincide with the change in pottery cannot be decided from the limited material furnished by a narrow test pit. The new ceramic shapes and techniques suffice to prove a profound foreign influence on the culture of Sumer, very probably to be explained by an actual infiltration of a new ethnic element. Since red and grey wares and handled vases were no longer popular in North Syria and Palestine, the new impulse most likely came from the west or north-west. If immigrants be postulated, the most likely candidates would be Semites.

Were the ’foreigners’ responsible for the introduction of superior technical devices and a more advanced social structure? Even the earliest Uruk pottery, from Erech — XIV and Eridu — V, includes wheel-made vases. Admittedly the potter’s wheel is not only itself an epoch-making invention, but also implies a more articulated economy, the use of metal tools and consequently professional smiths, and is nearly always associated with wheeled vehicles. It does not, however, follow that all or any of these advances were introduced into Sumer, together with the new ceramic fashions and techniques, at the beginning of the Uruk period. On the contrary, indirect evidence for the use of metal in Ubaid times has already been quoted. Nor is any culture known, least of all in the west, that is at once demonstrably as old as the Ubaid culture of Sumer and at the same time likely to have outstripped it technically and socially. On the other hand, the exploitation of the Tigris-Euphrates delta would be calculated to produce just these social and economic conditions in which metallurgy and wheeled vehicles would be serviceable and under which the unit of settle-ment could and must be relatively large and the social surplus sufficient to support professional potters, smiths, and other full-time specialists.

No doubt the infusion of foreign traditions, evoked by a different, western environment, fertilized the cultural heritage of the marsh-dwelling peasant societies. Nothing proves that a 'higher’ culture was imposed upon the latter from without. During the Uruk period peasant villages did grow into cathedral cities, but it is illegitimate to claim that the observed achievements of Sumer were introduced ready-made7 from some unknown center outside. What we can reasonably infer from the archaeological record are the development of an economy to employ and support new classes of specialists, the application of fresh productive techniques and devices, and a consequent expansion of population.

All that is most clearly reflected in temple architecture. And rightly so if, as in historical times, the temple was the center where the surplus grain or milk or fish, produced by individual peasant families above domestic needs was 'saved’ and concentrated to be redistributed to support professional artisans and pay for imported materials. The early Uruk temples at Eridu (—V and — IV) carry on the traditions of the Ubaid temples they replace, though built on a more lavish scale and on ever higher and more spacious platforms. But the platform of Temple—III was eventually faced with limestone blocks.

The same exotic building material was employed in the foundations of a veritable cathedral at the beginning of the Late Uruk phase at Erech. There the earliest preserved temple in the E-anna, the precinct of the goddess Innin, the Limestone Temple of level— V2, must have covered an area 76 m. long by 30 m. wide. It consisted of a long cella with niched walls, flanked on either side by lateral chambers symmetrically disposed. It was replaced in level — IVB by a yet more imposing edifice, the Pillar Temple. This stood on a mud brick platform and was apparently approached through a sort of portico, consisting of two rows of four free-standing brick columns, each 2—6 m. in diameter, corresponding to four half-columns in the temple wall. The columns, the walls and the platform face were strengthened and decorated by a mosaic of baked clay cones, hammered into the soft mud plaster. The exposed ends of the cones have been painted red, white or black and are. arranged to form diamond and triangle patterns suggesting the palm stems that the columns presumably copied and the mats or rugs that hung between them...

Almost equally imposing temples were built about the same time at Uquair, in Akkad. The second agrees in length, in the crenellation of its outer walls and in plan with the White Temple at Erech. But its interior walls had been decorated with frescoes in red, orange, and black on a white ground. The altar front bears an architectural theme with motives recalling the Pillar Temple at Erech, but leopards and bulls were painted on its sides. In a vestibule panels depict human figures, wearing gaily decorated knee skirts, comparable in cut, but not in material, to the Sumerian kilt or kaunakes, familiar in historic times.

The Uquair frescoes show that the Uruk period had developed a new style of representational art and this is confirmed by seal-engravings, sculptured vases, and larger bas-reliefs. Hunters since the Old Stone Age have attempted to portray animals and plants in a lifelike manner and often succeeded. Neolithic and later peasantries have been content to symbolize the idea of ibex or woman by an abstract conventional figure. The painters, engravers, and sculptors of the Uruk period sought once more to depict things or persons as they saw them, but now in accordance with deliberate sophisticated conventions.  Their pictures are the principal source of our knowledge of the equipment of lower Mesopotamia in Uruk times since few actual objects of profane use have survived.

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the Russian words:

Exercise 4. Use one of the words given in the box to fill in each gap:

1. These plain dark-faced wares, together with an equally plain drab ware, replace the _____Ubaid fabrics and mark a breach with the old ceramic tradition.        

2. The new ceramic shapes and techniques suffice to prove a profound foreign _____ on the culture of Sumer, very probably to be explained by an actual infiltration of a new ethnic element.

3. If immigrants be_____, the most likely candidates would be Semites.

4. _____ the potter’s wheel is not only itself an epoch-making invention, but also implies a more articulated economy,

5. ______ indirect evidence for the use of metal in Ubaid times has already been quoted. 6. The American artist Stuart Davis, heavily influenced by French Cubism, took the Lucky Strike package as the ___________        for a picture.

6.  ____ the exploitation of the Tigris-Euphrates delta would be calculated to produce just these social and economic conditions…

7.  The early Uruk temples at Eridu (—V and — IV) carry on the traditions of the ___ temples they replace

8. The columns, the walls and the platform face were strengthened and decorated by a mosaic of baked clay cones, hammered into the soft mud _____.

9. Almost equally imposing ____ were built about the same time at Uquair, in Akkad.

10. Hunters since the Old Stone Age have attempted to portray animals and plants in a lifelike manner and often _____.

Exercise 5. Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F) according to the text:

1. Admittedly the potter’s wheel is only itself an epoch-making invention.

2. Since red and grey wares and handled vases were popular in North Syria and Palestine.

3. On the other hand, the exploitation of the Tigris-Euphrates delta would be calculated to produce just these social and economic conditions

4. Another exotic building material was employed in the foundations of a veritable cathedral at the beginning of the Late Uruk phase at Erech.

5. The exposed ends of the cones have been painted red, white or black and are. arranged to form diamond and triangle patterns suggesting the palm stems…

6. The second agrees in length, in the crenellation of its outer walls and in plan with the White Temple at Erech.

7. Hunters since the Old Stone Age have not attempted to portray animals and plants in a lifelike manner and often succeeded.

8. The painters, engravers, and sculptors of the Uruk period sought once more to depict things or persons as they saw them, but now in accordance with deliberate sophisticated conventions.

Exercise 6. Match the words (1 – 14) with the words (a – n) as they occur together in the text:

Exercise 7. Fill in the blanks with a word or expression from the box given below:

1. The potter’s wheel may be considered an (1) —.
2. The Pillar temple was an (2) — with a portico consisting of two rows of free-standing columns.
3. The use of metal tools (3) — a superior form of production.
4. It is very likely that foreigners (4) — for the introduction of a more advanced social structure in the Uruk period.
5.  Red and grey handled vases (5) — in North Syria.
6. The use of pure colours (6) — on the Japanese wood engraver by the medium (материалом).
7. The cups and jugs with handles discovered in a test-pit at Erech (7) —.
8.  Since the earliest times hunters (8) — to portray animals and plants in a (9) — manner.
9. Neolithic peasants (10) — to symbolize the idea of man or animal by an abstract conventional figure.

Exercise 8. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the “either…or”.

1. You can either use this method or that one.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

2. When there is a crisis, they either do nothing of do something useless.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

3. You can use either a diskette or a disk.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

4. You must answer either yes or no.

 ______________________________________________________________________

5. You can either walk or take a lift.

______________________________________________________________________

Questions for revision

Exercise 1. Write a short summery of the text describing the one of the following:

1. The Uruk period which has been conventionally defined by the appearance of unpainted grey pottery.

2. The earliest Uruk pottery, from Erech — XIV and Eridu — V, which includes wheel-made vases.

3. Temple architecture.

4. The Uquair frescoes show that the Uruk period had developed a new style of representational art.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT 4. Христианское искусство Британских Островов. (Christian Art in the British Isles)

TEXT 1. Christian Art in the British Isles

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

Christian art begins in the catacombs of Rome, the first burial-places, and also, on account of the security they afforded, the primitive churches of the imperial city. The earliest decoration of the catacombs differed little from that of Pagan tombs, with the addition of such figures as the Good Shepherd or Daniel in the lion’s den. Gradually, however, scenes from the Old and New Testaments become more numerous, the favorite ones from the Old Testament being those, that were believed to point most directly to the work of Christ, such as Noah in the Ark, symbolizing the Church, through which believers are saved from the destruction awaiting the world; Abraham’s sacrifice of Isaac, typifying the sacrifice of Christ; and the story of Jonah, referring to the resurrection of Christ on the third day. In the catacombs are also the earliest examples of the Christian use of symbolism, based upon the real or supposed qualities of animal life, derived in part from the Bible and in part from the fabulous tales about animals told in the ancient natural histories such as that of Pliny. The sheep typifies the flock of Christ; the peacock is an emblem of the resurrection, in accordance with the old belief that its flesh is incorruptible, and that it loses its plumage in the winter only the more gorgeously to attire itself in the spring; the fish is a symbol of Christ, because the letters of the Greek word for fish form the first letters of the Greek words for «Jesus Christ, the Son of God, Savior».

It was natural, also, that in the transition from paganism to Christianity such pagan myths and legends as could be interpreted in any Christian sense should be seized upon. The favorite representation of Christ as the Good Shepherd bearing the lost sheep can be traced to the pagan motive of Hermes, as the god of flocks, carrying a lamb or kid; and the Legend of Orpheus taming the wild beasts with his music is used to set forth the power of Christ to subdue the wild passions of the human heart.

When Christianity received the imperial sanction and spread throughout the Roman Empire, it carried these art-motives with it, and others were added in course of time, as one or another dogma received special emphasis. The vessels used in the church ritual, the sarcophagi in which the dead were buried, the pictures in mosaic with which the walls and ceilings of the churches were decorated, ivories in such forms as book-covers, reliquaries, crucifixes, and images, manuscripts such as psalters and Bibles, were all decorated with scenes and figures like those in the catacombs.

Following this symbolism into our own islands, we find that the cross, which, except as a monogram of the name of Christ did not come into use until the fifth century, is the first symbol found in them. We have seen it used in the Christian art of Roman Britain. In Ireland we have found it on the bee-hive cell of Skellig Michael (native name: Sceilig Mhichíl); and on the Round Tower of Antrim a cross is carved in relief on a slab of stone above the lintel of the doorway; the emblem referring in each case to the blood of the lamb sprinkled upon the lintels of the house doors of the Israelites in Egypt, and to Christ’s words, «I am the door: by Me if any man enters in, he shall be saved». With the exception of these crosses the early Irish churches show but little sculptured ornament, for which we have to look to sepulchral monuments and stone crosses.

The belief in the resurrection of the body has led Christians in all ages, as in the early centuries in the catacombs, to attach great importance to the tomb; although since there was no belief, as in Egypt, that the spirit remained with or revisited the body while it lay in the tomb, the tombs of Christendom have not been as elaborate and as elaborately ornamented as those of Egypt. The figured ornament of the Egyptian tomb was believed to be of use to the spirit while it remained with the body in the long home; the figured ornament of the Christian tomb only gives expression to the faith in which the departed has died, and in which those who have erected the memorial live.

The earliest sepulchral monuments in Ireland are in the form of rude pillar-stones, of which 121 are known. They are not peculiar to Ireland, however, 107 similar stones being found in Wales, thirty — in Cornwall and Devon, and five — in Scotland, this distribution suggesting that Ireland may be regarded as their place of origin in the British Isles. They are pieces of hard, volcanic stone, usually about six feet in length, placed upright in a hole dug in the ground, and are neither dressed nor squared. An inscription giving the name of the deceased was also cut in the stone, either in rudely formed Roman letters or in Oghams, a form of writing consisting of straight lines crossing each other, used by the ancient Irish, or both forms of writing are used. The inscription often begins with the Latin Hie jacet (here lies), and is in either Latin or Irish or both languages. A later series of monuments consists of dressed stones of such varied forms as erect crosses, cross-slabs, cylindrical pillars, recumbent cross-slabs, and coped tomb-stones, which are ornamented with interlaced and spiral patterns derived from earlier pagan art, and with labyrinthine key-patterns and animal forms with their bodies and different members interlaced in most grotesque fashion; and at a later date foliage was similarly employed. The designs were divided into panels and surrounded with a border. The language and lettering of the inscriptions vary according to the situation of the monuments. At Clonmacnois there are 179 sepulchral cross-slabs varying in date, as ascertained by the names inscribed, from A. D. 628 to A. D. 1273. Considered as art, the interlaced and other decorative work shows remarkable skill in design, but the figure-drawing is extremely rude. We have already seen that in the bronze age great skill was shown in the designing of geometrical patterns, but that the representation of animal and human forms was not attempted. The Celtic Christian artists, in their decorative work, testify to the value of traditional skill; the feebleness of their figure-drawing, on the other hand, being accounted for by its being a mere clumsy imitation of examples imported from the East. Still, the traditional art became excessively mechanical in character.

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the Russian words:

Exercise 4. Use one of the words given in the box to fill in each gap:

1. The Emperor Justinian (1) ______ the remarkable church of Hagia Sophia at 'enormous expense.

2. The old pagan myths (2) _____ began to be interpreted in a Christian sense.

3. Some experts had been consulted in order (3) ____ that the picture was authentic.

4. The fact that his sculptures lacked vigor and individuality (4) ____ Warrington Wood’s failure to become a great artist.

 5. On a stormy night the little hut high up in the mountains (5) ____ a shelter to the weary traveler.

6. A (6) ___ design of (7) ____ patterns can be met with in Byzantine manuscripts of the sixth century.

7. Early potters produced their ware in a very primitive (8) ___.

8. It is sometimes (9) ___ difficult to establish the exact date of a find.

 9. The standing figures in Byzantine miniatures can be (10) ____ to the ancient Greek statues of philosophers, poets and orators.

 10. You need not even (11) ____ to finish your work in so short a time.

11. The belief in the resurrection of the body could have (12) ____ for the importance attached to the tomb.

Exercise 5. Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F) according to the text:

1. Christian art begins in the catacombs of Rome, the first burial-places, and also, on account of the security they afforded, the primitive churches of the imperial city. 

2. The sheep typifies the flock of Christ; the peacock is an emblem of the resurrection, in accordance with the old belief that its flesh is corruptible…

3. When Christianity received the imperial sanction and spread throughout the Roman Empire, it didn’t carry these art-motives with it…

4. Following this symbolism into our own islands, we find that the cross, which, except as a monogram of the name of Christ did not come into use until the fifth century, is the first symbol found in them.

5. The belief in the resurrection of the body has led Christians in all ages, as in the early centuries in the catacombs, to attach great importance to the tomb;

6. The figured ornament of the Egyptian tomb was not believed to be of use to the spirit while it remained with the body in the long home;

7. The figured ornament of the Christian tomb only gives expression to the faith in which the departed has died, and in which those who have erected the memorial live.

8. The Celtic Christian artists, in their decorative work, testify to the value of traditional skill; the feebleness of their figure-drawing…

Exercise 6. Translate the following sentences into Russian:

1. I hope these books will be of use to you.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. The wall surrounding the Kremlin is 2,5 km. in length.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. The copy of the manuscript is so marvelously executed that it differs but little from the original.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. The custom of placing a cross on the tomb must not have come into use in Britain until the fifth century.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. To understand some peculiarities of Van Gogh’s art one should look to the early years of his artistic career.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. These miniatures are exquisite both in style and execution.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. At first I did not attach importance to the man’s words.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. Many ways and customs disappear in course of time.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. In his landscapes Constable gave expression to his love of English natural beauty.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 7. Chose the right variant.

1. The money (1) (is, are) on the desk.
2. Where (2) (is, are) the money? Where did you put (3) (it, them)! I can’t find (4) (it, them).
3. - He is making a lot of money.

-And what does he do with (5) (it, them)?

4. What (6) (is, are) the news?
5. The news (7) (is, are) very good.
6.  I have got very good news for you. Where (8) (do, does) it come

from?

7.  There (9) (is, are) no news.
8.  His progress in French (10) (is, are) not surprising. His wife is a teacher of French.
9.  This information (11) (come, comes) from the journal.
10.  I often followed his advice. (12) (It was, they were) good.
11.  There (13) (is, are) no news at the moment.
12.  His knowledge of accounting (14) (is, are) very good.

Questions for revision

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions:

1. Where did Christian art originate?

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What scenes of the Old Testament were mostly selected for the decoration of the catacombs?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. What examples of early Christian symbolism can you give?

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. How were pagan motives made use of in Christian art?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. What belief led early Christians to attach importance to the tomb?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. What did the earliest sepulchral monuments look like?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. What points to the fact that their origin is in the British Isles?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. What sepulchral monuments were being used in later times?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9.  How were these monuments decorated?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 2. Write a short summery of the text describing one the following:

1. Christian art begins in the catacombs of Rome.
2. We have seen the cross that used in the Christian art of Roman Britain and in Ireland.
3. The earliest sepulchral monuments in Ireland.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT 5. Флорентийские Фрески. (Florence Frescoes)

TEXT 1. The Santa Croce Frescoes

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

At a time when the political and cultural scene in Italy was changing because of the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire (Romanesque) and the beginning of French domination (Gothic), it is reasonable to expect and to find a change in the style of the art of that period. The change had already been perceptible in architecture and sculpture. Now it was also taking place in painting, in no uncertain terms, at the hands of a progressive and dynamic personality such as Giotto was. His early search for form had brought him in contact in Rome with painters influenced by Classical sculptural traditions. He had also met with sculptors in whose work both Gothic and Classic traditions were intermingled. On his return to the north from Rome and Assisi, Giotto came into closer contact with the new Gothic style in sculpture established in Tuscany by the Pisani. He must have known the great marble sculptured pulpit in Sant’Andrea at Pistoia, begun by Giovanni Pisano in 1301. He must also have known its creator whom he was to meet again a few years later at Padua: for Giotto’s style at Padua, as we have seen, was to be forcibly influenced by Pisano’s sculpture. Giotto’s work in the Arena chapel represents the complete victory of the Gothic style in Italian painting just as Giovanni Pisano’s accomplishments represent the ultimate triumph of the Gothic style in sculpture.

Some time during the first decade of the fourteenth century Giotto painted for the church of the Ognissanti in Florence the huge enthroned Madonna that is now in the Uffizi Gallery. The large-scale proportions are in line with those of the great late thirteenth century Madonnas already mentioned. From the indications of the angels’ and saints’ figures about the throne we can presume that originally there were extensions to left and right. Giotto represented the Madonna in terms of Gothic sculpture. The composition is full of rectangular lines and few relieving curves, emphasizing the static bulk of the Virgin. The cubical silhouette contrasts sharply with the curvilinear one of Duccio’s Madonnas and adds enormously to the effect of the physical thereness of the figure. The flimsy Gothic canopied throne on which the Madonna sits is scarcely adequate for the massive figure it supports. Giotto must surely have been familiar with the seated statues of Arnolfo di Cambio, such as that of Charles of Anjou now in the Museo de’ Conservatori in Rome or those of Pope Boniface VIII and the Madonna and Child made for the Florence cathedral. These have the same rectangular bulk of form and similarly looped drapery between the knees that one sees in the Ognissanti Madonna. The angels kneeling with flower-filled vases at the foot of the throne are directly inspired by French Gothic ivory figures.

Giotto’s style reached its full development in the frescoes of the Bardi and Peruzzi chapels in Santa Croce, Florence. He had also decorated two other chapels here, the Tosinghi and the Giungi, but those frescoes have disappeared as the result of renovations. In the Bardi chapel the frescoes represent episodes from the life of St. Francis painted in three superimposed rows on the right and left walls. In a similar disposition of three levels in the Peruzzi chapel we see scenes from the life of St. John the Baptist on the left wall and from the life of St. John the Evangelist on the right wall. Santa Croce being the Franciscan church of Florence, it was fitting to commemorate St. Francis in the frescoes of the Bardi chapel. It was also fitting to choose stories from the life of John the Baptist in the Peruzzi chapel, John being the patron saint of Florence.

Although the frescoes of both chapels were gone over and re-touched in the nineteenth century — most of this retouching has recently been removed from the Bardi chapel frescoes—enough is at hand from which to judge Giotto’s late style. We note a much less rugged treatment of the human forms than had been the case at Padua. The proportions are slenderer and incline toward elegance; and the emotions are more muted. Although the scene of St. Francis’ death in the Bardi chapel recalls the Pieta in Padua, these changes in form and emotion are patent. The figures in the Santa Croce frescoes in general are much more related to and contained by the architecture in which they are set. There is an obvious insistence on a symmetrically balanced architectural background even when the figure groups may be asymmetrically arranged. In the famous fresco in the Peruzzi chapel of the Feast of Herod, the architecture stretched across the background like a folding screen with re-entrant angles may suggest a sense of recession in space, a problem that was to be attacked with surprising results by Giotto’s forward-looking pupils Maso and Taddeo Gaddi. But Giotto in this and other frescoes in Santa Croce maintains a compositional control between the forms and the architectural backgrounds.

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the Russian words:

Exercise 4. Match the two columns to make word combinations (adjectives with suitable nouns):

Exercise 5. Match the notion with the right information about it.

Exercise 6. Translate the following sentences into Russian:

1. He was familiar with the place, having been born there.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Van Gogh's aspirations to become a painter brought him in contact with the works of the Impressionists.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Raphael’s Madonnas suggest a sense of profound peacefulness and divine serenity.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Having all his implements close at hand the artist set out to paint the glorious sunset.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Some of those frescoes being gone over, we can get but a poor idea of their original beauty.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. Raphael is considered the greatest painter of the Renaissance just as Michelangelo is its. greatest sculptor.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. Owing to Pissaro Gauguin came into closer contact with the Impressionists.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 7. Translate from Russian into English using expressions from the text:

1. Ангелы, преклонившие колени у подножья трона, навеяны готическими фигурами из слоновой кости.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Мы можем заключить, что Джотто, вероятно, был знаком с работами братьев Пизано.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Новый готический стиль был утвержден в Тоскане Андреа Пизано.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. В Риме многие художники находились под влиянием традиций классической скульптуры.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. На стенах капеллы Барди Джотто изобразил сцены из жизни Иоанна Крестителя.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. Эти фрески сильно поблекли и были подправлены в XIX в.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. Светлое платье центральной фигуры контрастно выделяется на темном фоне.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. В поздних работах Джотто трактовка человеческих фигур более утонченная (refined).

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. Сцена смерти святого Франциска в капелле Барди напоминает по композиции Pieta в Падуе.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 8. Choose the right form of pronouns given in the brackets.

1. Most artists are very interested in (1) (they, their, them) visitors’ responses.

2. If (2) (I, you, we) don’t have experience with art critique or art terms, try to describe what (3) (I, you, we) see or feel.

3. (4) (Yours, your, you) is a subjective opinion.

4. Part of the beauty of art is being able to say (5) (something, nothing, anything) just as the creator wants to say it.

5. Artists often work in jobs that mean (6) (something, nothing, anything) to (7) (they, them, their) in order to keep an adequate cash flow.

6. Contrary to what (8) (much, many, little) people believe, artists are not born artists.

7. There is (9) (any, no, some) overlap in training and experience, but (10) (this, these, those) two professions have less to do with each other than you might think.

8. You shouldn’t be wasting (11) (your, his, her) time painting.

9. You don’t know (12) (something, anything, nothing) about art.

10. There is (13) (no, not, none) single kind of art and galleries usually focus on different types of work.

Questions for revision

Exercise 1. Translate the poem into Russian

Art can find the lost

Art can find the lost.

The lost can find the way by seeing, doing, being art.

We can get lost in the seeing, the doing, the being... to forget.

We can find our way by seeing, doing, being.

Art can show the way.

Art explores the void, the darkness, the chaos.

Art heals the pain by turning into an image.

The image can be beautiful or ugly.

Art can make us angry.

It makes us ask if it is for us or against us.

It questions us by asking who the public is.

It helps us to understand where we stand.

Art tells us who we are or who we will be.

Laura Lengyel, painter, performance artist

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT 6. Средневековые Русские Церкви. (Medieval Russian Churches)

TEXT 1. Medieval Russian Churches.

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

The second extant church built by Yuri Dolgoruki was begun in 1152 but completed by his son Andrew in 1157, at Pereyaslavl Zalesski, north of Vladimir. The name of the town, Pereyaslavl ‘beyond the forests’, to distinguish it from the city of the same name south of Kiev, reflects its settlement by colonists from the south. Here again we have a four-column church, built of white stone with one cupola and the original arched roof. The name of the town, Pereyaslavl ‘beyond the forests’, to distinguish it from the city of the same name south of Kiev, reflects its settlement by colonists from the south It is closer to the ground and more archaic than these, but is important as a prototype of subsequent structures. At the edge of the cupola is a cornice consisting of a Byzantine line of ornament with triangular points down which recurs again and again on churches of this area. The saw-tooth ornament occurs both above the corbel-tables on the three apses and above the frieze on the drum of the cupola. The apses themselves are rather of the Kievan than the Novgorodian type.

These two churches are less pretentious in conception and more modest in ornament than the churches built toward the beginning of the thirteenth century and later. The ornamental forms resemble those in Chernigov. But from the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204 and the foundation of the Latin Empire of the East, the influence of Western Europe becomes more and more marked in north-eastern Russia, though the possibility of ornamental borrowings from the Caucasus and Armenia should not be lost sight of in view of the line of communication down the Volga.

The most imposing architectural monument of north-eastern Russian art is the Cathedral of the Assumption at Vladimir, completed by Prince Andrew in 1158. For its construction and adornment Andrew employed numerous foreign artisans, and for pure splendor this church was the richest and most ornate ever seen in Russia. But unfortunately most of the city of Vladimir was destroyed by fire in 1185, and the Cathedral was reduced to ruins. It was thus reconstructed in subsequent years by Andrew’s brother and successor Vsevolod and reconsecrated in 1189. The basic design of this church resembles that of the Assumption at Kiev, — six columns, three apses, and one cupola. It was erected entirely from white stone brought from Bulgaria (this may mean Kazan) instead of the Volga stone employed in the earlier churches. When Prince Vsevolod restored it, he expanded it by adding an arcade on all three sides and adding four corner cupolas, but to the credit of his artisans it must be admitted that the reconstruction is so masterly as to give the impression of a single unified structure. The curved roof of the arcades does not come quite to the height of the vaults of the main and original structure, thus supplying an extremely ingenious perspective. The cupolas, it will be noticed, are helmet-shaped, modern restorations replacing late cupolas of the bulbous type. The decoration is distinctly more complex than in the two churches just discussed. The corbel-table line familiar from Chernigov and Novgorod has moved upward from the drum of the cupola to the base of the cupola itself. Below the rim of the cupola we find the line of vertically set stone familiar from Pereyaslavl Zaleski and below that the angular frieze also observed there. Below this frieze the corbel-table is repeated, supported by engaged colonettes with Corinthianesque capitals, which are repeated in larger dimensions at the corners and on the pilasters of the facades. Both windows and portals are of the Romanesque type with set-backs. The concentric arches of the portals are also supported by small columns. A few relief masks of birds and lions on the tympana beside the windows show scanty remnants of the original relief decorations, which was extensive and included various biblical and apocryphal scenes. The original polychrome character of the external walls is also indicated by some fragmentary external frescoes. A few internal fresco fragments discovered in 1918 are as yet unpublished. A very characteristic and distinctive feature of Vladimirian architecture is the row of small engaged columns supporting an arched corbel-table and moulding all around the middle of the facades. On the west facade this decoration is in relief on the wall itself. The colonettes are fully worked out with capitals and bases, the latter supported on carved consoles. This ornament is reproduced under the cornice of the apses, with some of the colonettes extending the whole height of the apse. On the lateral facades, however, where there are four blind windows this decoration is repeated with recesses between the pilasters. The recessed windows with multiple retreating arches have a pronounced Romanesque aspect.

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the Russian words:

Exercise 4. Substitute English equivalents for the Russian words and expressions given in brackets:

1. We should not (1) (упускать из виду) the possibility of an intercourse between north-eastern Russia and the Caucasus.
2. (2) (Учитывая) the recent discoveries of archeologists some of these problems must be treated with great caution.
3. The block of marble from which the statue of Venus has been chiseled is of so beautiful a tint that it (3) (производит впечатление) of being live flesh.
4. The newspapers reported that a terrible hurricane (4) (превратил) a number of coastline hamlets (5) (в развалины). (6) (Большая часть) of the population was left without shelter.
5. Earlier Russian churches though modest in ornament (7) (не лишены изящества).
6. In the Gallery visitors admired paintings (8) (знакомые им no) reproductions.
7. Dutch influence (9) (было заметным) in English architecture of the early years of the 18th century.
8. The walls of the Throne Room in the Royal villa at Knossos show but (10) (скудные остатки) of the once magnificent decoration.

Exercise 5. Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F) according to the text:

1. The second extant church built by Yuri Dolgoruki was begun in 1150 but completed by his son Andrew in 1152, at Pereyaslavl Zalesski, north of Vladimir.

2. This church lacks the grace and harmony of the later major structures in and about Kiev.

3. At the edge of the cupola is a cornice consisting of a Byzantine line of ornament with triangular points down which recurs again and again on churches of this area 

4. These two churches are less pretentious in conception and more modest in ornament than the churches built toward the beginning of the thirteenth century and later, the ornamental forms resemble those in Chernigov.

5. The most imposing architectural monument of north-eastern Russian art is the Cathedral of the Assumption at Vladimir, completed by Prince Yuri in 1158.

6. The cupolas of the Cathedral of the Assumption at Vladimir are helmet-shaped, modern restorations replacing late cupolas of the bulbous type. The decoration is distinctly more complex than in the two churches just discussed.

7. Below the rim of the cupola we find the line of vertically set stone familiar from Pereyaslavl Zaleski and below that the angular frieze also observed there.

8. The original polychrome character of the external walls is also indicated by some fragmentary external frescoes. A few internal fresco fragments discovered in 1916 are as yet unpublished.

9. On the lateral facades, however, where there are four blind windows this decoration is repeated with recesses between the pilasters. The recessed windows with multiple retreating arches have a pronounced Romanesque aspect.

Exercise 6. Match the words (1-10) with the words (a - j) to make word combinations:

Exercise 7. Write questions for these answers.

1. The second extant church built by Yuri Dolgoruki was begun in 1152 but completed by his son Andrew in 1157, at Pereyaslavl Zalesski, north of Vladimir. (When and where ...

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. The name of the town, Pereyaslavl ‘beyond the forests’, to distinguish it from the city of the same name south of Kiev, reflects its settlement by colonists from the south. (What…____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Here again we have a four-column church, built of white stone with one cupola and the original arched roof. (What church … _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. The apses themselves are rather of the Kievan than the Novgorodian type. (What apses … ___________________________________________________________________

5. But from the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204 and the foundation of the Latin Empire of the East, the influence of Western Europe becomes more and more marked in north-eastern Russia. (When …________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. The most imposing architectural monument of north-eastern Russian art is the Cathedral of the Assumption at Vladimir, completed by Prince Andrew in 1158. (Whom … ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. For its construction and adornment Andrew employed numerous foreign artisans. (How many foreign artisans … _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. The basic design of this church resembles that of the Assumption at Kiev. (What basic design … ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. The decoration is distinctly more complex than in the two churches just discussed. (What kind of decoration … ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

10. A few internal fresco fragments discovered in 1918 are as yet unpublished. (___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________, are they?)

Exercise 8. Put these sentences into the correct order:

Questions for revision

Exercise 1. Find extra information about ancient Russian churches. 

UNIT 7. Культурное наследие. Сохранение и Реставрация. (Cultural Heritage. Conservation and Restoration)

TEXT 1. Cultural Heritage. Conservation and Restoration

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

The preservation-restoration intervention means making efficient again a product of human activity, the preservation consisting of multiple actions whose purpose is to treat and keep valuable cultural artifacts, both mobile and immobile. The restoration of works of art implies the establishment of a work methodology specific for each object, in compliance with general principles, the principle of minimum intervention being the basis of every methodological restoration proposal. The purpose of restoration is to restore the potential unity of the object. The restoration interventions must be recognizable without producing a historical or esthetic fake, reversible and performed with materials compatible with the original. For this reason, the first and most important action undertaken in order to treat a work of art is scientific documentation, consisting of analysis, tests, written, photographic and drawn documentation, all of these necessary in order to emphasize the technological aspects of the conservation status of the studied objects, as well as the proof of evolution of the performed interventions.

Conservation involves the care and preservation of works of art, all of which are, over a period of time, subject to alteration and deterioration. This may be due to several factors: chemical, physical, and biological changes which occur through the inherent instability of the materials of an object, or result from faulty technique; accelerated decay as a result of poor environmental conditions, mishandling, or accidental damage and deliberate intervention by owners or restorers. Changes in the states of materials are largely inevitable and irreversible but deterioration can be reduced by proper conservation treatment. This, however, demands sound knowledge of the historic and artistic value of the object, as well as its chemical and physical structure.

There is an increasing awareness that environmental factors are vitally important in determining the lifespan of objects, and that much restoration work carried out in the past might have been avoided by careful handling, storage, and display. Organic materials including canvas, wood, paper, some pigments, and most media, are particularly sensitive to environmental changes. Excessively high or low levels of humidity and temperature, excessive light, and atmospheric pollution contribute to the deterioration of objects which is accelerated by dramatic fluctuations in conditions. Museums and art galleries usually attempt to maintain a stable atmosphere but conditions in private homes and historic houses are more difficult to regulate.

If, despite all precautions, active restoration treatment becomes necessary it should only be undertaken by a skilled and experienced conservator working in the appropriate specialized field; irreparable damage can inadvertently be caused by enthusiastic amateur methods. Professional conservation preserves the authenticity of the object while avoiding unnecessary treatment. Methods and materials are chosen for their stability and reversibility, and therefore will not hinder future conservation.

Paintings. Paintings are usually on wood panels or canvas and have a multilayered structure in which one or more of the components may break down.

Supports. Both wood and canvas are subject to dimensional changes with variations in relative humidity and temperature. Panels, especially if composed of several pieces of wood joined together, are prone to splitting and warping. In the past this was corrected by applying a wooden framework (cradle) to the back, or by reinforcing joins and splits with wooden buttons; these methods may, however, cause further damage by introducing new stresses. Canvas weakens with age, particularly at points of high stress such as the edges where it is attached to the stretcher, and becomes incapable of supporting the ground and paint layers. The usual remedy is to line the painting; this involves attaching a new canvas to the back of the original with a glue, resin, or wax-based adhesive. The majority of paintings more than 100 years old have been lined, sometimes as a preventive measure. Nowadays much research is carried out into improved lining methods, which use synthetic fabrics and adhesives; nevertheless lining is avoided whenever possible because it entails the risk of permanently altering the appearance and surface texture of the painting. In conditions of high humidity (above 70 percent relative humidity) supports may be attacked by mold or insects, requiring fumigation with fungicide or insecticide.

Ground and paint layers. Movement of the support and faulty painting technique may cause cleavage of paint and ground, which cracks and becomes detached. If unchecked this will result in paint loss, therefore loose flakes must be consolidated with adhesive and reattached.

Varnish. Natural resin varnishes, and some synthetic varnishes, eventually become yellow, brittle, or cloudy, and the paint surface is dulled or concealed. Removal of varnish should only be carried out by a conservator.

Irreversible changes in paintings. craquelure. The network of cracks apparent in most paintings, craquelure, develops as the medium dries, or as a result of movement of the dried, brittle paint film which occurs with age. This may be visually disturbing but cannot be corrected.

Yellowing. This occurs with all drying oils, such as linseed. It may cause color changes, particularly in pale areas and blues.

Pentimenti. The increased transparency of the oil medium, as it ages, may result in changes made by the artist in the course of painting (pentimenti) becoming visible through the upper paint layers.

Color changes. If fugitive pigments such as some red and yellow organic lakes have been used, they tend to fade under the action of light and cannot be restored. Green copper resinate often turns brown, and the blue pigment smalt may become gray in an oil medium.

In general, paintings are best kept framed and glazed, preferably with some backing to the frame to exclude dust.

Paper. Paper is composed of cellulose fibers from rag or wood pulp. Its chief enemies are acidity and air pollution.

Acidity. Acidity may result from the processing of wood pulp into paper and from the introduction of alum. A neutral pH of about 7 is ideal for paper, since excess alkalinity is also harmful. All deacidification processes are short-term measures, since acidity may also be increased by atmospheric pollution.

Light and heat. The recommended light level for paper is 50 lux. High light levels may alter the color of paper but, more significantly, will fade pigments. High temperatures increase the rate of all chemical reactions; works on paper should therefore not be displayed too high on walls, over fires, or in direct sunlight.

Humidity. A level of 50 percent RH is recommended since fungus and mold thrive in high humidity, which should in any case never exceed 65 percent. Mold feeds on size, cellulose, and binders such as gum arabic or gum tragacanth which are used in watercolors and pastels. Insect pests tend to attack paper and glue, and may leave brown acidic deposits which eat into the paper.

Mounting and framing. A major cause of deterioration of paper is mounting and framing on cheap board, which can transmit acidity to the paper, or on wood, which exudes resins into the paper. “Museum board” - high grade, acid- free board made from cotton fibers - should always be used. Paper must not be stuck down all over on to a board but hinged with good-quality Japanese paper, to allow expansion and contraction as atmospheric conditions vary.

The mounting of works of art on paper protects them from unnecessary handling; the mount must also be deep enough to prevent the work from coming into contact with the glass when framed. This is particularly applicable to fragile pastel, chalk, and charcoal drawings which are highly susceptible to abrasion.

Any treatment of fumigation, flattening creases, bleaching papers, mending tears, or resizing should only be carried out by an expert, since it involves the use of moisture and toxic chemicals.

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the Russian words:

Exercise 4. Use one of the words given in the box to fill in each gap:

1. Conservation involves the care and preservation of works of art, all of which are, over a period of time, subject to alteration and ________.

2. Changes in the states of _______ are largely inevitable and irreversible but deterioration can be reduced by proper conservation treatment 

3. There is an increasing awareness that _______ factors are vitally important in determining the lifespan of objects,

4. Organic materials including canvas, wood, paper, some ________, and most media, are particularly sensitive to environmental changes 

5. Museums and art galleries usually attempt to _______ a stable atmosphere but conditions in private homes and historic houses are more difficult to regulate.

6. Professional _______ preserves the authenticity of the object while avoiding unnecessary treatment.

7. The usual remedy is to line the painting; this involves attaching a new canvas to the back of the original with a glue, resin, or ______ adhesive

8. Movement of the support and faulty painting technique may cause ____ of paint and ground, which cracks and becomes detached.

9. Removal of ______ should only be carried out by a conservator.

10. A level of 50 percent RH is recommended since fungus and mold thrive in high _____, which should in any case never exceed 65 percent

Exercise 5. Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F) according to the text:

1. Alteration and deterioration. may be due to several factors: chemical, physical, and biological changes which occur through the inherent instability of the materials of an object, or result from faulty technique; accelerated decay as a result of poor environmental conditions, mishandling, or accidental damage and deliberate intervention by owners or restorers.

2. Changes in the states of materials are largely inevitable and irreversible but deterioration cannot be reduced by proper conservation treatment.

3. There is a decreasing awareness that environmental factors are vitally important in determining the lifespan of objects.

4. Excessively high or low levels of humidity and temperature, excessive light, and atmospheric pollution contribute to the deterioration of objects which is accelerated by dramatic fluctuations in conditions.

5. Museums and art galleries don’t usually attempt to maintain a stable atmosphere but conditions in private homes and historic houses are more difficult to regulate.

6. If, despite all precautions, active restoration treatment becomes necessary it should not only be undertaken by a skilled and experienced conservator working in the appropriate specialized field;

7. Paper is composed of cellulose fibers from rag or wood pulp. Its chief enemies are acidity and air pollution.

8. High light levels may not alter the color of paper and won’t fade pigments. 

9. Insect pests tend to attack paper and glue, and may leave brown acidic deposits which eat into the paper.

10. Any treatment of fumigation, flattening creases, bleaching papers, mending tears, or resizing should only be carried out by an expert, since it involves the use of moisture and toxic chemicals.

Exercise 6. Match a first part (1-10) with a second part (a-j):

Exercise 7. Match the meanings of these terms with their definitions:

Exercise 8. Put each prepositional phrase (a – h) in its correct space in the sentences (1 – 8):

1. All our sports activities are organized __________ a fully qualified instructor.

2. __________ rain, the party will be held in the conservatory.

3. ___________ your instructions, we have rearranged the meeting for later        in the schedule.

4. ____________ language skills, a resort representative must have good interpersonal (межличностные) skills.

5. ___________ the current economic situation, we can expect fewer visitors this year.

6. The hotel has had some bad reviews but _________ sales, it has been very popular.

7.  We are _________ negotiating a new contract with our tour operator.

8.  I enclose a cheque _________ our accommodation.

Questions for revision

Exercise 1. Write a short summery of the text describing one the following:

1. Special features of the processes of conservation and restoration.
2. Irreversible changes in paintings. 
3. The causes of deterioration of paper and the ways how to protect it.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT 8. Реставрация икон. (Restoration of Icons)

TEXT 1. Restoration of Icons

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

The two basic methods of icon restoration differ in the degree of restorers' intervention into the material structure of the work. The first method, a simple "renewal" of the icon, is non-destructive and is most often used on lightly damaged icons. The losses in the ground are filled and the surface of the icon is partially or completely repainted over the old varnish. Sometimes, the entire surface of the old icon is covered with the new ground. The new ground covers the original composition so well that sometimes a completely different composition is painted over it. After several centuries, such an icon becomes a "carrier" of many clearly distinguishable layers which can be separated and removed.

The second method of "restoration" is much more destructive because it is used whenever the icon has considerable losses of the ground and the color layer or when the varnish is too dark and needs to be removed. The bumps in the ground are cut out with a knife, and the painted surface is cleaned; sometimes, to make it smooth, the restorer rubs it with pumice. Then, the icon is repainted with fresh paints directly over the old painted surface and over the new fragments of the ground. As a result, the image on the icon turns into a mosaic of fragments from different centuries hidden under the fresh layer of paint. Even the best scientific restoration of such an icon cannot determine precisely when the overpainting was done and which fragments of the icon are still original.

Reconstructing the damaged fragments of icons, Russian and Soviet restorers have followed the following principles:

1. Complete restoration of the work to its original appearance. This principle has three distinct historical phases, each producing results of different quality:

• naive repainting ("renovation")

• complete restoration of iconography

• scientific and artistically justified reconstruction.

2. Preservation of the original parts of the old work only. This principle contradicts the first principle and disallows any reconstruction of the losses. The restorer's intervention is limited exclusively to preservation of the surviving fragments of the work and to the removal of overpaintings.

3. Rejection of any visible additions by the restorers. It can be called a principle of archeological restoration because it obliges the restorers during their revealing of the original layer of paint to preserve, wherever possible, of various layers of overpainting. The result of such restoration is a monument of history of culture and not a work of art which embodies the idea and the genius of its author. The main principle of such restoration is to leave the previously repaired and restored fragments intact.

4. Reconstruction of the color and tonal unity of the composition. This principle, introduced and developed in the 1920-30s, remains the most popular today. In a restoration guided by this principle, the restorers try to recapture the original artistic unity of the work by developing the potential unity of the surviving fragments. The restorers' efforts should be restricted to the revealing of the possibilities hidden in the fragments themselves, without committing a historical blunder or aesthetically damaging the work. This principle requires that the fill-ins (restorations) be made easily recognizable but at the same time invisible from a distance optimal for the viewing of the work; otherwise the work's unity, which is the main objective of such a kind of restoration, will be destroyed. Therefore, the fill-ins should match the original parts of the work in luminosity and chromatic quality.

Today, with the help of computers, anyone can engage in the "restoration" of icons without fear of irretrievably destroying a magnificent work of art. Digital reconstruction allows us to take a "hypothetical" look at some of the most damaged icons.

 Before any intervention of conservation and restoration of icons on wood, it is necessary to make a scientific documentation containing physical, chemical and biological analyses, consolidation and cleaning tests, as well as a written, photographic and drawn documentation. The documentation must be reveal the scientific nature of the restoration, and also highlight the technological aspects of icons, the state of preservation and the conservation - restoration methodological operations performed on the studied objects.

The scientific research carried out before the restoration operation, like the microscopic examination of the paint layer stratigraphy, composition of the materials through FTIR (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy) (Инфракрасная спектроскопия с преобразованием Фурье) technique and XRF (X – ray fluorescence) (Рентгеновская флуоресценция), aim the proper understanding of the studied object and helps to identify the chemical composition of the materials used in making the work. These studies are useful in preparing a restoration methodology specific to each particular item, the results obtained after the research being those which argue each intervention of conservation and restoration on the work.

The advantage of the XRF (X – ray fluorescence) method is that the analysis is performed directly on the surface investigated not destroy and there can be used surfaces of several cm² from homogeneous and inhomogeneous materials. Other advantages are that the analyses can be simultaneous and rapid; they can be performed in situ with equipment portable to the cultural assets of all types and sizes, being able to be applied to conductive and non - conductive materials. The XRF technique is very used in the analysis of the first layers of the surface and for a first determination of the nature of cultural asset substances.

The FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy) analysis is a technique which analyzed the types of chemical bonds of a molecule through the production of an infrared absorption spectrum (инфракрасный спектр поглощения). Thus, after tests conducted it is often revealed in all analyzed samples, the presence of calcium sulphate, indicating that primer layer is gypsum. Also, it is also highlighted a protein binder, probably glue. In several samples it is sometimes found a resin similar to shellac, possibly from the coating surface layer and it is also identified a silicate that can come from the bolus under the gold leaf.

The chromatic integration of putty areas is performed by reconstituting the motifs and figurative elements to the extent that existing landmarks allowed us. The large and small putty is integrated in rittoco and tratteggio technique, using water colors and egg yolk emulsion. The tratteggio technique is based on coloring large putty areas, using for this a network of fine lines drawn vertically with a tipped brush; they are obtained from the decomposition of tones forming that color and placing them in transparent, superposed layers, the reconstruction of the basic tone being achieved optically by juxtaposing color tones of chromatic retouch.

The integration of color erosion and small gaps of color film is often made in rittocco technique. The technique is achieved by decomposing the original tone in juxtaposed points that optically reconstruct the original tone of the intervention area. After varnishing the work, some areas are also chromatically integrated and in varnish colors, taking into account the dosage of used diluents used (oil essence and turpentine) to obtain a gloss according to the original material. The last performed operation is the varnishing, made with dammar varnish in concentration of 12 % and aiming at protecting the paint layer.

A scientific documentation is required in the conservation - restoration process of icons on wood. The restoration interventions performed are designed and implemented based on the types of degradation existing on the wooden surface structure and the paint layer after a scientific research based on modern principles of restoration, permanently and inalienably respecting the object’s authenticity.

The research results help the restoration process, taking into account during operations of the used materials’ reversibility and compatibility with the original, as well as the readability of the performed interventions.

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the Russian words:

Exercise 4. Use one of the words given in the box to fill in each gap:

1. After several centuries, such an icon becomes a "carrier" of many clearly ______ layers which can be separated and removed.

2. As a result, the image on the icon _____ a mosaic of fragments from different centuries hidden under the fresh layer of paint

 3. This ______ has three distinct historical phases, each producing results of different quality.

4. This principle contradicts the first principle and disallows any reconstruction of the_____.

5. The result of such restoration is a monument of history of culture and not a work of art which _____ the idea and the genius of its author.

6. In a restoration guided by this principle, the ______ try to recapture the original artistic unity of the work by developing the potential unity of the surviving fragments.

7. Digital reconstruction allows us to take a _____ look at some of the most damaged icons.

8. The documentation must be reveal the scientific nature of the restoration, and also highlight the technological aspects of icons, the state of preservation and the _____ methodological operations performed on the studied objects.

9. The advantage of the XRF method is that the analysis is performed directly on the surface investigated not destroy and there can be used surfaces of several cm² from _______ materials.

10. The FTIR analysis is a technique which analyzed the types of chemical bonds of _____ through the production of an infrared absorption spectrum.

Exercise 5. Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F) according to the text:

1. The two basic methods of icon restoration don’t differ in the degree of restorers' intervention into the material structure of the work.
2. The losses in the ground during the first method are filled and the surface of the icon is partially or completely repainted over the old varnish.
3. The first method, is much more destructive because it is used whenever the icon has considerable losses of the ground and the color layer or when the varnish is too dark and needs to be removed.
4. The second method of "restoration", a simple "renewal" of the icon, is non-destructive and is most often used on lightly damaged icons.
5. Reconstructing the damaged fragments of icons, Russian and Soviet restorers have followed the following principles: complete restoration of the work to its original appearance; preservation of the original parts of the old work only; rejection of any visible additions by the restorers; reconstruction of the color and tonal unity of the composition.
6. Before any intervention of conservation and restoration of icons on wood, it is necessary to make a scientific documentation containing physical, chemical and biological analyses, consolidation and cleaning tests, as well as a written, photographic and drawn documentation.
7. The documentation doesn’t highlight the technological aspects of icons, the state of preservation and the conservation - restoration methodological operations performed on the studied objects.
8. The XRF technique is seldom used in the analysis of the first layers of the surface.
9. The FTIR analysis is a technique which analyzed the types of chemical bonds of a molecule through the production of an infrared absorption spectrum.
10. The restoration interventions performed are designed and implemented based on the types of degradation existing on the wooden surface structure and the paint layer after a scientific research based on modern principles of restoration.

Exercise 6. a) Match the words (1-15) with their synonyms (a-о):

b) Match the words (1-14) with their antonyms (a-n):

Exercise 7. Make up questions to the words in bold:

1. The surface of the icon is partially or completely repainted over the old varnish.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Then, the icon is repainted with fresh paints directly over the old painted surface and over the new fragments of the ground ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Reconstructing the damaged fragments of icons, Russian and Soviet restorers have followed the four principles.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. This principle has three distinct historical phase. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. This principle contradicts the first principle.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. The main principle of such restoration is to leave the previously repaired and restored fragments intact.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. This principle requires that the fill-ins (restorations) be made easily recognizable. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. The technique is achieved by decomposing the original tone in juxtaposed points. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. The tratteggio technique is based on coloring large putty areas.

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10. A scientific documentation is required in the conservation - restoration process of icons on wood.

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Questions for revision

Exercise 1. Answer these questions:

1. What do the two basic methods of icon restoration differ?

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2. What characteristic features of the first method can you point out?

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3. Why is the second method of "restoration" much more destructive?

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4. What principles have Russian and Soviet restorers followed reconstructing the damaged fragments of icons?

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5. What distinct historical phases does the first principle have?

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6. What is the restorer's intervention limited to in the second principle?

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7. Why can the third principle be called of archeological restoration?

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8. Why does the fourth principle, introduced and developed in the 1920-30s, remain the most popular today?

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9. What advantages of the XRF (X – ray fluorescence) method can you mention?

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10. What are the characteristic features of the FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy) technique?

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 Exercise 2. Have you ever performed any intervention of restoration of icons on wood? Describe the process of making a scientific documentation containing physical, chemical and biological analyses, consolidation and cleaning tests, as well as a written, photographic and drawn documentation on the studied object.

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UNIT 9. Как оценивать искусство. Изучение искусства. (How to Appreciate Art. Studying Art.)

TEXT 1. Studying Art. 

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

We can take great pleasure in merely looking at art, just as we take pleasure in the view of a distant mountain range or watching the sun set over the ocean. But art, unlike nature, is a human creation. It is one of the many ways we express ourselves and attempt to communicate. A work of art is the product of human intelligence, and we can meet it with our own intelligence on equal footing.

The understanding of process - the how - often contributes quite a lot to our appreciation of art. If you understand why painting in watercolor may be different from painting in oil, why clay responds differently to the artist’s hands than does wood or glass, why a stone building has different structural needs than one made of poured concrete - you will have a richer appreciation of the artist’s expression.

Knowing the place of a work of art in history - what went before and came after - can also deepen your understanding. Artists learn to make art by studying the achievements of the past and observing the efforts of their contemporaries. They adapt ideas to serve their own needs and then bequeath those ideas to future generations of artists. The more you know about this living current of artistic energy, the more interesting each work of art will become. For example, Matisse assumed that his audience would know that Venus was the ancient Roman goddess of love. But he also hoped that they would be familiar with one Venus in particular, a famous Greek statue known as the “Venus de Milo”. Knowing the Greek work deepens our pleasure in Matisse’s version, for we see that in “carving” his Venus out of a sheet of white paper he evokes the way a long-ago sculptor carved her out of a block of white marble.

An artist may create a specific work for any of a thousand reasons. An awareness of the why may give some insight as well. Looking at Van Gogh’s “The Starry Night”, it might help you to know that Van Gogh was intrigued by the belief that people journeyed to a star after their death, and that there they continued their lives. The tree that rises so dramatically in the foreground of the painting is a cypress, which has often served as a symbol of both death and eternal life. This knowledge might help you to understand why Van Gogh felt so strongly about the night sky, and what his painting might have meant to him.

But no matter how much you study, Van Gogh’s painting will never mean for you exactly what it meant for him, nor should it. An artist’s work grows from a lifetime of experiences, thoughts, and emotions; no one else can duplicate them exactly. Great works of art hold many meanings. The greatest of them seem to speak anew to each generation and to each attentive observer. The most important thing is that some works of art come to mean something for you, that your own experiences, thoughts, and emotions find a place in them, for then you will have made them live.

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the Russian words:

Exercise 4. Use one of the words given in the box to fill in each gap:

1. Art, unlike nature, is a human ___.

2. A work of art is the product of human ____.

3. The understanding of the process - the how - often contributes quite a lot to our ___ of art.

4. Knowing the place of a work of art in history can also deepen your ____.

5. Artists learn to make art by studying the achievements of the past and observing the efforts of their ____.

6. The more you know about this living ___ of artistic energy, the more interesting each work of art will become.

7. An awareness of the why may give some ___ as well.

8. An artist’s work grows from a lifetime of experiences, thoughts, and ___.