Рабочая тетрадь для практических работ по дисциплине «Иностранный язык (английский)» в разделе «Профессионально-направленный модуль» для специальности 54.02.07 Скульптура
учебно-методическое пособие по английскому языку на тему

РАБОЧАЯ

ТЕТРАДЬ

ДЛЯ ПРАКТИЧЕСКИХ РАБОТ ПО ДИСЦИПЛИНЕ

«ИНОСТРАННЫЙ ЯЗЫК (АНГЛИЙСКИЙ)» В РАЗДЕЛЕ

«ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНО-НАПРАВЛЕННЫЙ МОДУЛЬ»

ДЛЯ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТИ 54.02.07 СКУЛЬПТУРА

Коровкина Татьяна Владимировна

Содержание

Введение

Рабочая тетрадь предназначена для практических работ по дисциплине «Иностранный язык» в разделе «Профессионально направленное содержание» для специальности 54.02.07 Скульптура. Основное назначение рабочей тетради – закрепить и активизировать языковой и речевой материал раздела «Профессионально направленное содержание», автоматизировать лексико-грамматические навыки при работе с профессионально-ориентированными текстами. Тексты сопровождаются методически грамотно построенным комплексом упражнений, помогающим обучаемым совершенствовать навыки и умения самостоятельной работы с текстом. Лексико-грамматические упражнения нацелены на быстрое и качественное запоминание профессиональных терминов, используемых по специальности Скульптура, повторение и практическое применение грамматических правил на базе профессионально-ориентированных текстов.

Рабочая тетрадь состоит из десяти разделов (Units) и одного приложения (Appendix 1). Материал каждого раздела (Unit) предусматривает последовательное, поэтапное изучение определенной темы, связанной с тенденциями развития cкульптуры и с будущей профессиональной деятельностью обучающихся и принципов, применяемых в практике изобразительного искусства. В основу каждого урока положен принцип развития речевой деятельности: чтения и устной речи. Специальные фонетические и морфологические упражнения способствуют лучшему усвоению звукового ряда английского языка. Приложение (Appendix 1) включают словарь профессиональных терминов и глоссарий.

Широкий спектр разнообразных практических заданий, организующих самостоятельную работу, требует от обучающихся творческого отношения при их выполнении (наличие заданий повышенной трудности), позволяет реализовать личностно-ориентированный подход при работе с обучающимися в разным уровнем подготовки и с разными интересами. Задания моделируют ситуации или используют реальные ситуации в целях анализа данного случая, поиска альтернативных решений и принятия оптимального решения проблем.

В тетрадь включены задания, готовящие обучающихся к объективному контролю и самоконтролю в процессе изучения английского языка.

Рабочая тетрадь соответствует уровню подготовки студентов по дисциплине «Иностранный язык (английский)» в разделе «Профессионально направленное содержание» для специальности 54.02.07 Скульптура.

Методические указания по изучению дисциплины.

В соответствии с ФГОС по дисциплине Иностранный язык (английский) для специальности 54.02.07 Скульптура студент должен:

УМЕТЬ: вести беседу на иностранном языке в стандартных ситуациях общения, соблюдая нормы речевого этикета, опираясь на изученную тематику и усвоенный лексико-грамматический материал; рассказывать о себе, своей семье, друзьях, своих интересах и планах на будущее, сообщать краткие сведения о своей стране и стране изучаемого языка на иностранном языке; делать краткие сообщения, описывать события/явления (в рамках пройденных тем), передавать основное содержание, основную мысль прочитанного или услышанного, выражать свое отношение к прочитанному/услышанному, кратко характеризовать персонаж на иностранном языке; понимать основное содержание несложных аутентичных текстов на иностранном языке, относящихся к разным коммуникативным типам речи (сообщение, рассказ), уметь определять тему текста, выделять главные факты в тексте, опуская второстепенные; читать аутентичные тексты на иностранном языке разных жанров с пониманием основного содержания, устанавливать логическую последовательность основных фактов текста); используя различные приемы смысловой переработки текста (языковую догадку, анализ, выборочный перевод), оценивать полученную информацию, выражать свое мнение на иностранном языке; читать текст на иностранном языке с выборочным пониманием нужной или интересующей информации; ориентироваться в иноязычном письменном и аудиотексте: определять его содержание по заголовку, выделять основную информацию; использовать двуязычный словарь; использовать переспрос, перифраз, синонимичные средства, языковую догадку в процессе устного и письменного общения на иностранном языке;

ЗНАТЬ: основные значения изученных лексических единиц (слов, словосочетаний); основные способы словообразования в иностранном языке; основные нормы речевого этикета, принятые в стране изучаемого языка; признаки изученных грамматических явлений в иностранном языке; особенности структуры и интонации различных коммуникативных типов простых и сложных предложений изучаемого иностранного языка; о роли владения иностранными языками в современном мире, особенностях образа жизни, быта, культуры стран изучаемого языка;

Структура практических занятий UNIT 1 – UNIT 10 включает в себя:

1. Texts. Тексты из оригинальных источников, раскрывающие фундаментальные понятия изобразительного искусства и рассказывающие об основных направлениях в искусстве. Ряд текстов может быть использован для беседы на темы: биография скульптора, посещение музея, обозрение выставки, описание картины или архитектурного памятника.
2. Exercises. Предтекстовые задания, облегчающие понимание текста; задания на проверку понимания содержания, задания на развитие и совершенствование грамматических умений и навыков, а также задания, стимулирующие развитие навыков на базе проблематики и словаря прочитанных текстов. Благодаря используемой системе упражнений данное пособие позволяет обучить студентов комплексу умений и навыков анализа смыслового содержания и логико-коммуникативной организации текста, необходимых как для полноты понимания читаемого, так и для его адекватного использования в речевой деятельности. Упражнения, направленные на обучение пониманию специальных материалов и использованию их в практической деятельности, прорабатывают основные проблемные области грамматики и словообразования.
3. В конце каждого раздела имеются вопросы, которые могут использоваться либо для выполнения домашних заданий, либо выступать в качестве тем для обсуждения во время занятий (Questions for revision).
4. Если обучающийся в своей работе сталкивается с термином, требующим перевода или толкования, и не обнаруживает его в настоящем рабочей тетради, огромное количество профессиональных переводчиков, работающих на сайте www.proz.com, помогут решить любые языковые проблемы.
5. Приложение 1. (Appendix 1). Содержит языковой комментарий (Глоссарий), представляющий собой словарь с наиболее частотной лексикой и выражениями, встречающимися в сфере изобразительного искусства. Содержит лингвистический комментарий, объясняющий смысл основных профессиональных терминов.

UNIT 1. Культурное наследие. Византийское искусство миниатюры. (Cultural Heritage. Byzantine art of Miniatures)

TEXT 1. Byzantine art of Miniatures

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

... From the first half of the fourth century to the end of the seventh Byzantine art developed in a normal and healthy manner. In spite of poverty, the burden of taxation, and the distractions of war and theological controversy, architecture, painting, and the minor arts flourished. Many of the artists who lived in these centuries had ability of a high order, and some of them were endowed with real genius. The period was a brilliant one in the history of Byzantine art, and it has justly been called the First Golden Age.

The chief architectural work produced in the Byzantine period was the great church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, which is now used by the Mohammedans as a mosque. It was planned on a magnificent scale and was erected by the Emperor Justinian at enormous expense. The choicest building materials of all kinds were collected in various parts of the Empire and transported to the capital for the construction of the church. In splendor and magnificence Hagia Sophia had no rivals, and it was the embodiment of the spirit of the time. It marked at once the beginning and the culmination of a new style; and whatever may be said concerning its defects and imperfections, this marvelous work is one of the most inspiring products of architectural genius in the whole world.

Many Byzantine mosaics, being of an enduring nature, have survived in Saloniki, Ravenna, and elsewhere. Scenes from the life of Christ, arranged in chronological order, were a favorite theme for the artists of the sixth century. Some of these early mosaics, as for example those in the Church of San Vitale at Ravenna, have great artistic merit.

The art of painting was represented by frescoes and icons. Most of the frescoes, however, have perished, because they were easily destroyed by dampness and water as well as by fire, and most of the buildings which they adorned have disappeared in the course of time. Nor is it at all surprising that very few icons of early date have been preserved. Since they were much used in popular devotion and were easily carried from place to place, they were in far greater danger of being lost or destroyed than mosaics or miniatures. The few remaining examples, such as the busts of St. Sergius and St. Bacchus in Kiev, are executed in encaustic and resemble in style and technique the portraits painted on wooden mummy tablets of the Graeco-Roman period which have been found in the Fayum. The most striking characteristic of all these pictures is their realism.

Miniatures were painted on the leaves of books, and hence they were not exposed to the hazards which endangered frescoes and icons. Several beautifully illustrated manuscripts, or fragments oi manuscripts, dating from the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries, are preserved in various European libraries. Some of them have already been mentioned. Several schools of miniature painting flourished during the second, third, and fourth centuries. The chief centers were Alexandria in Egypt, Antioch in Syria, and Ephesus in Asia Minor; and each had its own distinctive type. The standing figures of the evangelists originated in Alexandria, whereas the seated types arose in Antioch and Ephesus. The works produced in Antioch and in Ephesus were distinguished from each other by certain unmistakable characteristics.

Sculpture reached the acme of its development in Greece during the classical age, and it might naturally be expected that it would continue to flourish in Byzantine times. This, however, was not the case. In the earlier period sculpture was recognized as one of the major arts and was cultivated for its own sake, but later it was employed only for the purpose of decoration and ornament. This loss of prestige has often been attributed to the hostility of the Church. The latter, it is said, felt none too well disposed towards an art which had long been used to glorify the gods and heroes of paganism. The fact, however, is that from the fifth century after Christ onward the Orient was a potent factor in Christian art. Oriental influence could be found everywhere. In Syria and Mesopotamia sculpture played a subordinate part, being used only for ornament and decoration. Moreover, it must be remembered that Orientals were especially fond of color, which they preferred to form.

Although Greek and Oriental churches were not adorned with statues of Christ and the saints, nevertheless the influence of the statuary’s art can often be detected in the mosaics and frescoes with which they are embellished. The pose of the figures depicted in these works is the same as that which is seen in ancient statues of philosophers, poets, and orators. These statues were taken by the miniaturists as models for the pictures with which they illustrated manuscripts, and the miniatures in turn were copied by the mosaicists and fresco painters on the walls of churches and other buildings. Thus to some extent the spirit of Greek sculpture survived in Christian art.

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the Russian words:

Exercise 4. Use one of the nouns given in the box to fill in each gap:

1. The pose of the figures depicted in these works is the same as that which is seen in ancient statues of ___________, poets, and orators.        

2. This loss of prestige has often been attributed to the hostility of the ________.

3. In Syria and Mesopotamia sculpture played a subordinate part, being used only for ________ and decoration.

4. The works produced in Antioch and in Ephesus were _____ from each other by certain unmistakable characteristics.

5. Several schools of ______ painting flourished during the second, third, and fourth centuries

6. Since they were much used in popular _____ and were easily carried from place to place, they were in far greater danger of being lost or destroyed than mosaics or miniatures.

7. The most _____ characteristic of all these pictures is their realism.

8. Scenes from the life of ____, arranged in chronological order, were a favorite theme for the artists of the sixth century.

9. It was planned on a magnificent ______ and was erected by the Emperor Justinian at enormous expense

10. The period was a brilliant one in the history of Byzantine art, and it has justly been called the First ______ Age.

Exercise 5. Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F) according to the text:

1. From the first half of the seventh century to the end of the tenth Byzantine art developed in a normal and healthy manner.

2. Architecture, painting, and the minor arts didn’t flourish from the first half of the fourth century to the end of the seventh Byzantine

3. The period was a brilliant one in the history of Byzantine art, and it has been called the First Golden Age.

4. The great church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is now used by the Mohammedans as a museum.

5. Scenes from the life of Christ, arranged in chronological order, were a favorite theme for the artists of the sixth century.

6. Since icons were much used in popular devotion and were easily carried from place to place, they were in far greater danger of being lost or destroyed than mosaics or miniatures.

7. Miniatures were painted on the leaves of books, however they were exposed to the hazards which endangered frescoes and icons either.

8. In the earlier period sculpture was not recognized as one of the major arts and was not cultivated for its own sake.

9. In Syria and Mesopotamia sculpture played a subordinate part, being used only for ornament and decoration.

10. The pose of the figures depicted in these works is the same as that which is seen in ancient statues of philosophers, poets, and orators.

Exercise 6. Choose the right form of pronouns given in the brackets.

1. Most artists are very interested in (1) (they, their, them) visitors’ responses.

2. If (2) (I, you, we) don’t have experience with art critique or art terms, try to describe what (3) (I, you, we) see or feel.

3. (4) (Yours, your, you) is a subjective opinion.

4. Part of the beauty of art is being able to say (5) (something, nothing, anything) just as the creator wants to say it.

5. Artists often work in jobs that mean (6) (something, nothing, anything) to (7) (they, them, their) in order to keep an adequate cash flow.

6. Contrary to what (8) (much, many, little) people believe, artists are not born artists.

7. There is (9) (any, no, some) overlap in training and experience, but (10) (this, these, those) two professions have less to do with each other than you might think.

8. You shouldn’t be wasting (11) (your, his, her) time painting.

9. You don’t know (12) (something, anything, nothing) about art.

10. There is (13) (no, not, none) single kind of art and galleries usually focus on different types of work.

Exercise 7. Translate the sentences into Russian. Pay attention to the Comparative pattern “the more... the better” (“чем (больше)... тем (лучше)”)

1. The higher the price of the goods, the fewer people are ready to buy them.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

2. The more money I get, the more things I can buy.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

3. The bigger the house is, the more money it will cost.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

4. The longer the text, the longer it takes me to translate it.

______________________________________________________________________

5. The more work he has, the happier he is.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

6. The older you get, the more difficult it becomes to find a job.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

7. The longer the journey is, the more expensive the ticket is.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Exercise 8. Match the description of art directions with its name:

Exercise 9. Answer the following questions:

1. What period in Byzantine art has been called the First Golden Age and why?

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. By what is the art of painting of that period mostly represented?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Why haven’t the frescoes and icons of that period been preserved?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. What do you know about the construction of the great church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Where did the art of miniature-painting originate?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. Why did sculpture lose its prestige?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. In what form has the spirit of Greek sculpture survived in Christian art?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Questions for revision

Exercise 1. Write a short summery of the text describing one the following:

1. The characteristics of the chief architectural work produced in the Byzantine period.

2. The art of painting represented by frescoes and icons.

3. The characteristics of schools of miniature painting of Egypt, Syria and Asia. _____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT 2. Минойское искусство и его влияние на историю Древней Цивилизации. (The Discoveries of Minoan Art and their Bearing on the history of Ancient Civilization).

TEXT 1. The Discoveries of Minoan Art and their Bearing on the history of Ancient Civilization.

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

The covering up of a complex of apartments on the north-east, and the simultaneous submergence of many floor deposits, mean that Middle Minoan III, like the two preceding periods, was closed by a general catastrophe. The Late Minoan I that succeeds it is the period of many of the masterpieces of Minoan art already described. The villa of Hagia Triada, with its steatite vases, cat and bird fresco, and sarcophagus with the sacrificial procession, is to be placed here. So probably is the royal draughtboard of the palace of Knossos. The linear writing of Class A is now in regular use. Bronze swords have succeeded the daggers whose blades have been gradually lengthening during the Middle Minoan period. Naturalistic designs are still dominant, not only in the carved work of Hagia Triada, which gives us such vivid pictures of human life in peace or war, but in the flower and shell designs of the painted vases. The white on dark of the last period has now given place to a dark on light, and we find brown or red designs on a ground that varies from buff to a yellowish pink. A good example is a tall slight «filler» from Zakro, with its shells and sea anemones, and an almost identical vase, made, probably by the same artist, from Palaikastro. There is a blending of the two styles in a still more beautiful vase from the Lakkos or pit at Zakro, on which a delicate design of waving, water-lilies is painted in white upon a red-browrn slip. The curious point about this white design is that it was painted after the rest of the vase, with its red-brown ornament upon a pinkish clay, had already been fired and glazed; itself it was never fired, glazed or varnished, but, as its discoverer, Mr. Hogarth, tells us, can be removed with the lightest touch of the fingers. Another simple design of the period is that of reeds or grasses, such as are found on the graceful «flowerpots» from Phylakopi in Melos, in which the small hole pierced through the base suggests that this is not only a convenient name for describing a shape, but that they were really used as pots for plants. Phylakopi indeed shows other close connections with the art of this period, as it did with that of its predecessor, and the latest elements in the second city are contemporary. The Shaft graves at Mycenae too, begin in this period, and stretch on into the next. It is the first time that the word «Mycenaean» can be legitimately introduced into our story.

With Late Minoan II we reach the great architectural period of Minoan art —the period of the Throne Room and the Basilika Hall of the Royal Villa, the period of the great scheme of fresco wall decoration which survives to us in the Cupbearer and the groups of spectators watching the Palace sports. Whole areas were covered with stone carvings or painted plaster. The plaster- work varied from the sculpturesque high relief of the Bull’s Head, and the low modelling of the King with the Peacock Plumes, to the more usual flat-surfaced frescoes. These were either life-sized, like the Cupbearer, or miniature, like the scenes from the Palace sports. The two kinds of fresco seem to have been freely used side by side on the same wall, and were framed in decorative designs of wonderful variety, in which lozenge and zig-zag and fishscale and tooth and dentil ornament played their part along with triglyphs and rosettes and every kind of spiral. Even the decoration of the most characteristic vases of this period shows the influence of the architectural spirit, their rosettes and conventional flowers being imitated from the fresco borders and stone friezes of the Palace. Naturalism, where it survives in pottery, borrows its flowers and birds and fishes from the scenes depicted in the frescoes themselves, just as the more conventional style borrows from their decorative framework. On all vases alike the last traces of polychromy or of a monochrome light design on a dark ground have disappeared. We have now what used to be called the «best Myce-naen» style of dark on light; the design being of a lustrous glaze varying from red-brown to black according to the success with which it hides what is beneath it; while the ground is buff clay slip polished by hand on the terracotta body of the vase.

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find English equivalents for the Russian words in the text:

Exercise 4. Use a word given in the box to fill in each gap:

1. The Late Minoan I that succeeds it is the period of many of the masterpieces of _____ already described.

2. The villa of Hagia Triada, with its steatite vases, cat and bird fresco, and _____ with the sacrificial procession, is to be placed here.

3. _____ have succeeded the daggers whose blades have been gradually lengthening during the Middle Minoan period.        

4. The white on ____ of the last period has now given place to a dark on light.

5. A good example is a tall slight «filler» from Zakro, with its shells and sea anemones, and an almost identical vase, made, probably by the same artist, from ______.        

6. The curious point about this white design is that it was painted after the rest of the vase, with its red-brown ornament upon a _____ clay.

7. Another simple design of the period is that of reeds or grasses, such as are found on the graceful _____ from Phylakopi in Melos.        

8. With Late Minoan II we reach the great architectural period of Minoan art —the period of the _____ and the Basilika Hall of the Royal Villa.

9. The two kinds of fresco seem to have been freely used ____ on the same wall, and were framed in decorative designs of wonderful variety

10. On all vases alike the last traces of polychromy or of a ____ light design on a dark ground have disappeared.

Exercise 5. Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F) according to the text:

1. The villa of Hagia Triada, with its steatite vases, cat and bird fresco, and sarcophagus with the sacrificial procession, is to be placed here.

2. Bronze swords have not succeeded the daggers whose blades have been gradually lengthening during the Middle Minoan period.

3. The white on dark of the last period has now given place to a dark on dark, and we find brown or red designs on a ground that varies from buff to a yellowish pink.

4. The plaster- work varied from the sculpturesque high relief of the Bull’s Head, and the low modelling of the King with the Peacock Plumes, to the more usual flat-surfaced frescoes

5. The two kinds of fresco don’t seem to have been freely used side by side on the same wall.

6. The decoration of few characteristic vases of this period shows the influence of the architectural spirit.

7. Naturalism, where it survives in pottery, borrows its flowers and birds and fishes from the scenes depicted in the frescoes themselves, just as the more conventional style borrows from their decorative framework.

Exercise 6. Give English equivalents for the Russian expressions given in brackets and translate the sentences into Russian:

1. The boy’s bright eyes spoke of his intelligence (1) (точно так же, как) his ready smile was a token of his good nature.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Andersen’s fairy tales are enjoyed by children and grown-ups (2) (в равной степени).

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. The building shows elements of the old classic tradition (3) (наряду) with features of the new style. ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. The corner medallions on the facade (4) (окаймлены) in wreaths of laurels.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. We had better start ahead at once; (5) (остальная часть группы) will join us at the foot of the mountain.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. The hybrid style in English architecture labelled ’King Jamie’s Gothic’ (6) (уступил место) to what may be called the English Renaissance.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. Painting on wooden panels (7) (широко применялось) since ancient times.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. (8) (Любопытной особенностью) about the finger-ring in our possession is that it is said to have belonged to Ceasar Borgia and contained poison.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 7. Use the right form of the verbs.

1. Listen to him, please. He (1) (speaks, is speaking) Chinese.
2. She often (2) (speaks, is speaking) French when she (3) (travels, is travelling) in France.
3. Mary is in the office now. She is very busy. She (4)(works, is working) on the computer.
4. What foreign languages (5) (does your friend learn, is your friend learning) now?
5. What (6) (do you read, are you reading) now?
6. The family (7) (owns, is owning) a big house in the country.
7. Most of the students (8) (were listening , listened) to the teacher but Mary (9) (was reading, read) a history book. She (10) (hated, was hating) maths.
8. These people never (11) (owned, were owning) a house. They always (12) (lived, were living) in apartments.
9. Everyone (13) (was reading, read) quietly when the door (14) (was opening, opened) and a policeman came in.
10. The dentist’s waiting room was full of people. Some (15) (were reading, read), others (16) (were just turning, just turned) pages.

Questions for revision

Exercise 1. Write a short summery of the text describing one the following:

1. The Late Minoan I that succeeds - the period of many of the masterpieces of Minoan art.

2. The Late Minoan II - the great architectural period of Minoan art. __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT 3. Городская революция Древнего Востока. (The Urban Revolution in The Ancient East).

TEXT 1. The Urban Revolution in The Ancient East.

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

The Uruk period has been conventionally defined by the appearance of unpainted red-slipped and grey pottery at level — XIV in a test-pit sunk through some 20 m. of stratified occupation debris from the court of the prehistoric Limestone Temple (-V) in the E-anna at Erech. These plain dark-faced wares, together with an equally plain drab ware, replace the painted Ubaid fabrics and mark a breach with the old ceramic tradition. At the same level appear cups and jugs with handles that look equally foreign. How far other innovations, such as the use of the bow, certainly observable in the Uruk period, coincide with the change in pottery cannot be decided from the limited material furnished by a narrow test pit. The new ceramic shapes and techniques suffice to prove a profound foreign influence on the culture of Sumer, very probably to be explained by an actual infiltration of a new ethnic element. Since red and grey wares and handled vases were no longer popular in North Syria and Palestine, the new impulse most likely came from the west or north-west. If immigrants be postulated, the most likely candidates would be Semites.

Were the ’foreigners’ responsible for the introduction of superior technical devices and a more advanced social structure? Even the earliest Uruk pottery, from Erech — XIV and Eridu — V, includes wheel-made vases. Admittedly the potter’s wheel is not only itself an epoch-making invention, but also implies a more articulated economy, the use of metal tools and consequently professional smiths, and is nearly always associated with wheeled vehicles. It does not, however, follow that all or any of these advances were introduced into Sumer, together with the new ceramic fashions and techniques, at the beginning of the Uruk period. On the contrary, indirect evidence for the use of metal in Ubaid times has already been quoted. Nor is any culture known, least of all in the west, that is at once demonstrably as old as the Ubaid culture of Sumer and at the same time likely to have outstripped it technically and socially. On the other hand, the exploitation of the Tigris-Euphrates delta would be calculated to produce just these social and economic conditions in which metallurgy and wheeled vehicles would be serviceable and under which the unit of settle-ment could and must be relatively large and the social surplus sufficient to support professional potters, smiths, and other full-time specialists.

No doubt the infusion of foreign traditions, evoked by a different, western environment, fertilized the cultural heritage of the marsh-dwelling peasant societies. Nothing proves that a 'higher’ culture was imposed upon the latter from without. During the Uruk period peasant villages did grow into cathedral cities, but it is illegitimate to claim that the observed achievements of Sumer were introduced ready-made7 from some unknown center outside. What we can reasonably infer from the archaeological record are the development of an economy to employ and support new classes of specialists, the application of fresh productive techniques and devices, and a consequent expansion of population.

All that is most clearly reflected in temple architecture. And rightly so if, as in historical times, the temple was the center where the surplus grain or milk or fish, produced by individual peasant families above domestic needs was 'saved’ and concentrated to be redistributed to support professional artisans and pay for imported materials. The early Uruk temples at Eridu (—V and — IV) carry on the traditions of the Ubaid temples they replace, though built on a more lavish scale and on ever higher and more spacious platforms. But the platform of Temple—III was eventually faced with limestone blocks.

The same exotic building material was employed in the foundations of a veritable cathedral at the beginning of the Late Uruk phase at Erech. There the earliest preserved temple in the E-anna, the precinct of the goddess Innin, the Limestone Temple of level— V2, must have covered an area 76 m. long by 30 m. wide. It consisted of a long cella with niched walls, flanked on either side by lateral chambers symmetrically disposed. It was replaced in level — IVB by a yet more imposing edifice, the Pillar Temple. This stood on a mud brick platform and was apparently approached through a sort of portico, consisting of two rows of four free-standing brick columns, each 2—6 m. in diameter, corresponding to four half-columns in the temple wall. The columns, the walls and the platform face were strengthened and decorated by a mosaic of baked clay cones, hammered into the soft mud plaster. The exposed ends of the cones have been painted red, white or black and are. arranged to form diamond and triangle patterns suggesting the palm stems that the columns presumably copied and the mats or rugs that hung between them...

Almost equally imposing temples were built about the same time at Uquair, in Akkad. The second agrees in length, in the crenellation of its outer walls and in plan with the White Temple at Erech. But its interior walls had been decorated with frescoes in red, orange, and black on a white ground. The altar front bears an architectural theme with motives recalling the Pillar Temple at Erech, but leopards and bulls were painted on its sides. In a vestibule panels depict human figures, wearing gaily decorated knee skirts, comparable in cut, but not in material, to the Sumerian kilt or kaunakes, familiar in historic times.

The Uquair frescoes show that the Uruk period had developed a new style of representational art and this is confirmed by seal-engravings, sculptured vases, and larger bas-reliefs. Hunters since the Old Stone Age have attempted to portray animals and plants in a lifelike manner and often succeeded. Neolithic and later peasantries have been content to symbolize the idea of ibex or woman by an abstract conventional figure. The painters, engravers, and sculptors of the Uruk period sought once more to depict things or persons as they saw them, but now in accordance with deliberate sophisticated conventions.  Their pictures are the principal source of our knowledge of the equipment of lower Mesopotamia in Uruk times since few actual objects of profane use have survived.

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the Russian words:

Exercise 4. Use one of the words given in the box to fill in each gap:

1. These plain dark-faced wares, together with an equally plain drab ware, replace the _____Ubaid fabrics and mark a breach with the old ceramic tradition.        

2. The new ceramic shapes and techniques suffice to prove a profound foreign _____ on the culture of Sumer, very probably to be explained by an actual infiltration of a new ethnic element.

3. If immigrants be_____, the most likely candidates would be Semites.

4. _____ the potter’s wheel is not only itself an epoch-making invention, but also implies a more articulated economy,

5. ______ indirect evidence for the use of metal in Ubaid times has already been quoted. 6. The American artist Stuart Davis, heavily influenced by French Cubism, took the Lucky Strike package as the ___________        for a picture.

6.  ____ the exploitation of the Tigris-Euphrates delta would be calculated to produce just these social and economic conditions…

7.  The early Uruk temples at Eridu (—V and — IV) carry on the traditions of the ___ temples they replace

8. The columns, the walls and the platform face were strengthened and decorated by a mosaic of baked clay cones, hammered into the soft mud _____.

9. Almost equally imposing ____ were built about the same time at Uquair, in Akkad.

10. Hunters since the Old Stone Age have attempted to portray animals and plants in a lifelike manner and often _____.

Exercise 5. Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F) according to the text:

1. Admittedly the potter’s wheel is only itself an epoch-making invention.

2. Since red and grey wares and handled vases were popular in North Syria and Palestine.

3. On the other hand, the exploitation of the Tigris-Euphrates delta would be calculated to produce just these social and economic conditions

4. Another exotic building material was employed in the foundations of a veritable cathedral at the beginning of the Late Uruk phase at Erech.

5. The exposed ends of the cones have been painted red, white or black and are. arranged to form diamond and triangle patterns suggesting the palm stems…

6. The second agrees in length, in the crenellation of its outer walls and in plan with the White Temple at Erech.

7. Hunters since the Old Stone Age have not attempted to portray animals and plants in a lifelike manner and often succeeded.

8. The painters, engravers, and sculptors of the Uruk period sought once more to depict things or persons as they saw them, but now in accordance with deliberate sophisticated conventions.

Exercise 6. Match the words (1 – 14) with the words (a – n) as they occur together in the text:

Exercise 7. Chose the right variant.

1. The money (1) (is, are) on the desk.
2. Where (2) (is, are) the money? Where did you put (3) (it, them)! I can’t find (4) (it, them).
3. - He is making a lot of money.

-And what does he do with (5) (it, them)?

4. What (6) (is, are) the news?
5. The news (7) (is, are) very good.
6.  I have got very good news for you. Where (8) (do, does) it come

from?

7.  There (9) (is, are) no news.
8.  His progress in French (10) (is, are) not surprising. His wife is a teacher of French.
9.  This information (11) (come, comes) from the journal.
10.  I often followed his advice. (12) (It was, they were) good.
11.  There (13) (is, are) no news at the moment.
12.  His knowledge of accounting (14) (is, are) very good.

Exercise 8. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the “either…or”.

1. You can either use this method or that one.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

2. When there is a crisis, they either do nothing of do something useless.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

3. You can use either a diskette or a disk.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

4. You must answer either yes or no.

 ______________________________________________________________________

5. You can either walk or take a lift.

______________________________________________________________________

Questions for revision

Exercise 1. Write a short summery of the text describing the one of the following:

1. The Uruk period which has been conventionally defined by the appearance of unpainted grey pottery.

2. The earliest Uruk pottery, from Erech — XIV and Eridu — V, which includes wheel-made vases.

3. Temple architecture.

4. The Uquair frescoes show that the Uruk period had developed a new style of representational art.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT 4. Христианское искусство Британских Островов. (Christian Art in the British Isles)

TEXT 1. Christian Art in the British Isles

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

Christian art begins in the catacombs of Rome, the first burial-places, and also, on account of the security they afforded, the primitive churches of the imperial city. The earliest decoration of the catacombs differed little from that of Pagan tombs, with the addition of such figures as the Good Shepherd or Daniel in the lion’s den. Gradually, however, scenes from the Old and New Testaments become more numerous, the favorite ones from the Old Testament being those, that were believed to point most directly to the work of Christ, such as Noah in the Ark, symbolizing the Church, through which believers are saved from the destruction awaiting the world; Abraham’s sacrifice of Isaac, typifying the sacrifice of Christ; and the story of Jonah, referring to the resurrection of Christ on the third day. In the catacombs are also the earliest examples of the Christian use of symbolism, based upon the real or supposed qualities of animal life, derived in part from the Bible and in part from the fabulous tales about animals told in the ancient natural histories such as that of Pliny. The sheep typifies the flock of Christ; the peacock is an emblem of the resurrection, in accordance with the old belief that its flesh is incorruptible, and that it loses its plumage in the winter only the more gorgeously to attire itself in the spring; the fish is a symbol of Christ, because the letters of the Greek word for fish form the first letters of the Greek words for «Jesus Christ, the Son of God, Savior».

It was natural, also, that in the transition from paganism to Christianity such pagan myths and legends as could be interpreted in any Christian sense should be seized upon. The favorite representation of Christ as the Good Shepherd bearing the lost sheep can be traced to the pagan motive of Hermes, as the god of flocks, carrying a lamb or kid; and the Legend of Orpheus taming the wild beasts with his music is used to set forth the power of Christ to subdue the wild passions of the human heart.

When Christianity received the imperial sanction and spread throughout the Roman Empire, it carried these art-motives with it, and others were added in course of time, as one or another dogma received special emphasis. The vessels used in the church ritual, the sarcophagi in which the dead were buried, the pictures in mosaic with which the walls and ceilings of the churches were decorated, ivories in such forms as book-covers, reliquaries, crucifixes, and images, manuscripts such as psalters and Bibles, were all decorated with scenes and figures like those in the catacombs.

Following this symbolism into our own islands, we find that the cross, which, except as a monogram of the name of Christ did not come into use until the fifth century, is the first symbol found in them. We have seen it used in the Christian art of Roman Britain. In Ireland we have found it on the bee-hive cell of Skellig Michael (native name: Sceilig Mhichíl); and on the Round Tower of Antrim a cross is carved in relief on a slab of stone above the lintel of the doorway; the emblem referring in each case to the blood of the lamb sprinkled upon the lintels of the house doors of the Israelites in Egypt, and to Christ’s words, «I am the door: by Me if any man enters in, he shall be saved». With the exception of these crosses the early Irish churches show but little sculptured ornament, for which we have to look to sepulchral monuments and stone crosses.

The belief in the resurrection of the body has led Christians in all ages, as in the early centuries in the catacombs, to attach great importance to the tomb; although since there was no belief, as in Egypt, that the spirit remained with or revisited the body while it lay in the tomb, the tombs of Christendom have not been as elaborate and as elaborately ornamented as those of Egypt. The figured ornament of the Egyptian tomb was believed to be of use to the spirit while it remained with the body in the long home; the figured ornament of the Christian tomb only gives expression to the faith in which the departed has died, and in which those who have erected the memorial live.

The earliest sepulchral monuments in Ireland are in the form of rude pillar-stones, of which 121 are known. They are not peculiar to Ireland, however, 107 similar stones being found in Wales, thirty — in Cornwall and Devon, and five — in Scotland, this distribution suggesting that Ireland may be regarded as their place of origin in the British Isles. They are pieces of hard, volcanic stone, usually about six feet in length, placed upright in a hole dug in the ground, and are neither dressed nor squared. An inscription giving the name of the deceased was also cut in the stone, either in rudely formed Roman letters or in Oghams, a form of writing consisting of straight lines crossing each other, used by the ancient Irish, or both forms of writing are used. The inscription often begins with the Latin Hie jacet (here lies), and is in either Latin or Irish or both languages. A later series of monuments consists of dressed stones of such varied forms as erect crosses, cross-slabs, cylindrical pillars, recumbent cross-slabs, and coped tomb-stones, which are ornamented with interlaced and spiral patterns derived from earlier pagan art, and with labyrinthine key-patterns and animal forms with their bodies and different members interlaced in most grotesque fashion; and at a later date foliage was similarly employed. The designs were divided into panels and surrounded with a border. The language and lettering of the inscriptions vary according to the situation of the monuments. At Clonmacnois there are 179 sepulchral cross-slabs varying in date, as ascertained by the names inscribed, from A. D. 628 to A. D. 1273. Considered as art, the interlaced and other decorative work shows remarkable skill in design, but the figure-drawing is extremely rude. We have already seen that in the bronze age great skill was shown in the designing of geometrical patterns, but that the representation of animal and human forms was not attempted. The Celtic Christian artists, in their decorative work, testify to the value of traditional skill; the feebleness of their figure-drawing, on the other hand, being accounted for by its being a mere clumsy imitation of examples imported from the East. Still, the traditional art became excessively mechanical in character.

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the Russian words:

Exercise 4. Use one of the words given in the box to fill in each gap:

1. The Emperor Justinian (1) ______ the remarkable church of Hagia Sophia at 'enormous expense.

2. The old pagan myths (2) _____ began to be interpreted in a Christian sense.

3. Some experts had been consulted in order (3) ____ that the picture was authentic.

4. The fact that his sculptures lacked vigor and individuality (4) ____ Warrington Wood’s failure to become a great artist.

 5. On a stormy night the little hut high up in the mountains (5) ____ a shelter to the weary traveler.

6. A (6) ___ design of (7) ____ patterns can be met with in Byzantine manuscripts of the sixth century.

7. Early potters produced their ware in a very primitive (8) ___.

8. It is sometimes (9) ___ difficult to establish the exact date of a find.

 9. The standing figures in Byzantine miniatures can be (10) ____ to the ancient Greek statues of philosophers, poets and orators.

 10. You need not even (11) ____ to finish your work in so short a time.

11. The belief in the resurrection of the body could have (12) ____ for the importance attached to the tomb.

Exercise 5. Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F) according to the text:

1. Christian art begins in the catacombs of Rome, the first burial-places, and also, on account of the security they afforded, the primitive churches of the imperial city. 

2. The sheep typifies the flock of Christ; the peacock is an emblem of the resurrection, in accordance with the old belief that its flesh is corruptible…

3. When Christianity received the imperial sanction and spread throughout the Roman Empire, it didn’t carry these art-motives with it…

4. Following this symbolism into our own islands, we find that the cross, which, except as a monogram of the name of Christ did not come into use until the fifth century, is the first symbol found in them.

5. The belief in the resurrection of the body has led Christians in all ages, as in the early centuries in the catacombs, to attach great importance to the tomb;

6. The figured ornament of the Egyptian tomb was not believed to be of use to the spirit while it remained with the body in the long home;

7. The figured ornament of the Christian tomb only gives expression to the faith in which the departed has died, and in which those who have erected the memorial live.

8. The Celtic Christian artists, in their decorative work, testify to the value of traditional skill; the feebleness of their figure-drawing…

Exercise 6. Translate the following sentences into Russian:

1. I hope these books will be of use to you.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. The wall surrounding the Kremlin is 2,5 km. in length.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. The copy of the manuscript is so marvelously executed that it differs but little from the original.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. The custom of placing a cross on the tomb must not have come into use in Britain until the fifth century.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. To understand some peculiarities of Van Gogh’s art one should look to the early years of his artistic career.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. These miniatures are exquisite both in style and execution.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. At first I did not attach importance to the man’s words.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. Many ways and customs disappear in course of time.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. In his landscapes Constable gave expression to his love of English natural beauty.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 7. Chose the right variant.

1. The money (1) (is, are) on the desk.
2. Where (2) (is, are) the money? Where did you put (3) (it, them)! I can’t find (4) (it, them).
3. - He is making a lot of money.

-And what does he do with (5) (it, them)?

4. What (6) (is, are) the news?
5. The news (7) (is, are) very good.
6.  I have got very good news for you. Where (8) (do, does) it come

from?

7.  There (9) (is, are) no news.
8.  His progress in French (10) (is, are) not surprising. His wife is a teacher of French.
9.  This information (11) (come, comes) from the journal.
10.  I often followed his advice. (12) (It was, they were) good.
11.  There (13) (is, are) no news at the moment.
12. His knowledge of accounting (14) (is, are) very good.

Questions for revision

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions:

1. Where did Christian art originate?

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What scenes of the Old Testament were mostly selected for the decoration of the catacombs?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. What examples of early Christian symbolism can you give?

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. How were pagan motives made use of in Christian art?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. What belief led early Christians to attach importance to the tomb?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. What did the earliest sepulchral monuments look like?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. What points to the fact that their origin is in the British Isles?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. What sepulchral monuments were being used in later times?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9.  How were these monuments decorated?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 2. Write a short summery of the text describing one the following:

1. Christian art begins in the catacombs of Rome.
2. We have seen the cross that used in the Christian art of Roman Britain and in Ireland.
3. The earliest sepulchral monuments in Ireland.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT 5. Флорентийские Фрески. (Florence Frescoes)

TEXT 1. The Santa Croce Frescoes

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

At a time when the political and cultural scene in Italy was changing because of the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire (Romanesque) and the beginning of French domination (Gothic), it is reasonable to expect and to find a change in the style of the art of that period. The change had already been perceptible in architecture and sculpture. Now it was also taking place in painting, in no uncertain terms, at the hands of a progressive and dynamic personality such as Giotto was. His early search for form had brought him in contact in Rome with painters influenced by Classical sculptural traditions. He had also met with sculptors in whose work both Gothic and Classic traditions were intermingled. On his return to the north from Rome and Assisi, Giotto came into closer contact with the new Gothic style in sculpture established in Tuscany by the Pisani. He must have known the great marble sculptured pulpit in Sant’Andrea at Pistoia, begun by Giovanni Pisano in 1301. He must also have known its creator whom he was to meet again a few years later at Padua: for Giotto’s style at Padua, as we have seen, was to be forcibly influenced by Pisano’s sculpture. Giotto’s work in the Arena chapel represents the complete victory of the Gothic style in Italian painting just as Giovanni Pisano’s accomplishments represent the ultimate triumph of the Gothic style in sculpture.

Some time during the first decade of the fourteenth century Giotto painted for the church of the Ognissanti in Florence the huge enthroned Madonna that is now in the Uffizi Gallery. The large-scale proportions are in line with those of the great late thirteenth century Madonnas already mentioned. From the indications of the angels’ and saints’ figures about the throne we can presume that originally there were extensions to left and right. Giotto represented the Madonna in terms of Gothic sculpture. The composition is full of rectangular lines and few relieving curves, emphasizing the static bulk of the Virgin. The cubical silhouette contrasts sharply with the curvilinear one of Duccio’s Madonnas and adds enormously to the effect of the physical thereness of the figure. The flimsy Gothic canopied throne on which the Madonna sits is scarcely adequate for the massive figure it supports. Giotto must surely have been familiar with the seated statues of Arnolfo di Cambio, such as that of Charles of Anjou now in the Museo de’ Conservatori in Rome or those of Pope Boniface VIII and the Madonna and Child made for the Florence cathedral. These have the same rectangular bulk of form and similarly looped drapery between the knees that one sees in the Ognissanti Madonna. The angels kneeling with flower-filled vases at the foot of the throne are directly inspired by French Gothic ivory figures.

Giotto’s style reached its full development in the frescoes of the Bardi and Peruzzi chapels in Santa Croce, Florence. He had also decorated two other chapels here, the Tosinghi and the Giungi, but those frescoes have disappeared as the result of renovations. In the Bardi chapel the frescoes represent episodes from the life of St. Francis painted in three superimposed rows on the right and left walls. In a similar disposition of three levels in the Peruzzi chapel we see scenes from the life of St. John the Baptist on the left wall and from the life of St. John the Evangelist on the right wall. Santa Croce being the Franciscan church of Florence, it was fitting to commemorate St. Francis in the frescoes of the Bardi chapel. It was also fitting to choose stories from the life of John the Baptist in the Peruzzi chapel, John being the patron saint of Florence.

Although the frescoes of both chapels were gone over and re-touched in the nineteenth century — most of this retouching has recently been removed from the Bardi chapel frescoes—enough is at hand from which to judge Giotto’s late style. We note a much less rugged treatment of the human forms than had been the case at Padua. The proportions are slenderer and incline toward elegance; and the emotions are more muted. Although the scene of St. Francis’ death in the Bardi chapel recalls the Pieta in Padua, these changes in form and emotion are patent. The figures in the Santa Croce frescoes in general are much more related to and contained by the architecture in which they are set. There is an obvious insistence on a symmetrically balanced architectural background even when the figure groups may be asymmetrically arranged. In the famous fresco in the Peruzzi chapel of the Feast of Herod, the architecture stretched across the background like a folding screen with re-entrant angles may suggest a sense of recession in space, a problem that was to be attacked with surprising results by Giotto’s forward-looking pupils Maso and Taddeo Gaddi. But Giotto in this and other frescoes in Santa Croce maintains a compositional control between the forms and the architectural backgrounds.

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the Russian words:

Exercise 4. Match the two columns to make word combinations (adjectives with suitable nouns):

Exercise 5. Match the notion with the right information about it.

Exercise 6. Translate the following sentences into Russian:

1. He was familiar with the place, having been born there.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Van Gogh's aspirations to become a painter brought him in contact with the works of the Impressionists.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Raphael’s Madonnas suggest a sense of profound peacefulness and divine serenity.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Having all his implements close at hand the artist set out to paint the glorious sunset.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Some of those frescoes being gone over, we can get but a poor idea of their original beauty.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. Raphael is considered the greatest painter of the Renaissance just as Michelangelo is its. greatest sculptor.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. Owing to Pissaro Gauguin came into closer contact with the Impressionists.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 7. Translate from Russian into English using expressions from the text:

1. Ангелы, преклонившие колени у подножья трона, навеяны готическими фигурами из слоновой кости.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Мы можем заключить, что Джотто, вероятно, был знаком с работами братьев Пизано.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Новый готический стиль был утвержден в Тоскане Андреа Пизано.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. В Риме многие художники находились под влиянием традиций классической скульптуры.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. На стенах капеллы Барди Джотто изобразил сцены из жизни Иоанна Крестителя.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. Эти фрески сильно поблекли и были подправлены в XIX в.

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7. Светлое платье центральной фигуры контрастно выделяется на темном фоне.

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8. В поздних работах Джотто трактовка человеческих фигур более утонченная (refined).

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9. Сцена смерти святого Франциска в капелле Барди напоминает по композиции Pieta в Падуе.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 8. Choose the right form of pronouns given in the brackets.

1. Most artists are very interested in (1) (they, their, them) visitors’ responses.

2. If (2) (I, you, we) don’t have experience with art critique or art terms, try to describe what (3) (I, you, we) see or feel.

3. (4) (Yours, your, you) is a subjective opinion.

4. Part of the beauty of art is being able to say (5) (something, nothing, anything) just as the creator wants to say it.

5. Artists often work in jobs that mean (6) (something, nothing, anything) to (7) (they, them, their) in order to keep an adequate cash flow.

6. Contrary to what (8) (much, many, little) people believe, artists are not born artists.

7. There is (9) (any, no, some) overlap in training and experience, but (10) (this, these, those) two professions have less to do with each other than you might think.

8. You shouldn’t be wasting (11) (your, his, her) time painting.

9. You don’t know (12) (something, anything, nothing) about art.

10. There is (13) (no, not, none) single kind of art and galleries usually focus on different types of work.

Questions for revision

Exercise 1. Translate the poem into Russian

Art can find the lost

Art can find the lost.

The lost can find the way by seeing, doing, being art.

We can get lost in the seeing, the doing, the being... to forget.

We can find our way by seeing, doing, being.

Art can show the way.

Art explores the void, the darkness, the chaos.

Art heals the pain by turning into an image.

The image can be beautiful or ugly.

Art can make us angry.

It makes us ask if it is for us or against us.

It questions us by asking who the public is.

It helps us to understand where we stand.

Art tells us who we are or who we will be.

Laura Lengyel, painter, performance artist

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UNIT 6. История скульптуры. Скульптор Джон Уоррингтон Вуд. (History of Sculpture. John Warrington Wood, Sculptor)

TEXT 1. John Warrington Wood, Sculptor

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

John Warrington Wood cannot be said to belong to the English school of sculpture. Though he received his early training at the School of Art at Warrington, his native place, he developed his style in Rome, where he came under the influence of John Gipson, and in spite of his admiration of Bernini, his artistic sympathies were with the followers of Canova, the inheritors of the decaying tradition of classical Greece. A marked revival of the art of sculpture took place in England during his lifetime. But he played no part in the movement, and kept aloof in his Roman studio from the storm and stress of his own generation. Living as he did in Italy, he was, perforce, impressed by the consummate style of Donatello, the dignity and grandeur of Michelangelo; but he looked beyond these masters, further into the past, and got his inspiration from the Greeks and their imitators. His art, no less than the art of Canova and Thorvaldsen, lacks vigor and individuality. He was not content to catch the spirit of the antique and then express what he saw in his own terms and by his method; he borrowed his facture too from the ancients, and from them rather than from nature it was that he received his impressions. Phidias was his model, and those who cannot interpret the great convention with freedom run the risk of merely accentuating their inferiority to the old masters without adding a fresh paragraph to the history of art. In considering the achievement of Warrington Wood we must not overlook his limitations, for there can be little doubt that, had his ambitions been more modest, his artistic success would have been less contestable.

He was born, of humble parentage at Warrington in 1839 and received his early training at the local School of Art. His career as a student was distinguished, and before he was twenty-two he had won more medals than usually fall to the lot of the youthful sculptor. He exhibited his first original work, a study entitled «Spring» in 1862, and from this time his success was assured. A few years later he established himself in Rome, and though he paid frequent visits to his birthplace, Italy was his home until his death. His energy was indefatigable, and the list of his works is a long one. His fame rests upon his ideal statues, but he received many commissions for portraits, and is said to have executed no less than sixty busts. Few have met with more uniform success and good fortune. Once, after an attack of Roman fever, he was threatened with blindness, but happily the disaster was averted and his sureness of vision was preserved until his death. His first substantial triumph was in 1871. In that year he exhibited a statue of «Eve» at South Kensington, which failed to attract a purchaser. Some citizens of Warrington, however, proud of their fellow-townsman’s achievement, resolved to give him his opportunity, and having collected a thousand pounds, commissioned him to work his will for his own and his town’s glory. At the same time, Mr. A. B. Walker bought the «Eve», who was already packed for her return journey to Rome. The next few years were devoted to unremitting toil. In 1874 Wood completed a statue of «Elisha the Tishbite»; in 1877 his colossal «St. Michael overcoming Satan» was set up at Warrington. The block of marble from which this was chiseled was selected from the quarries by the sculptor himself. It was known as the «Pearl of Carrara», and was of so stupendous a size that fourteen buffaloes with two cream-colored Campagna oxen at their head were necessary to drag it to the studio. Buffaloes had been banished from Rome by the municipality, and it was only by especial privilege that Warrington Wood was permitted to employ their strength. The scene, therefore, was an unusual one, and many of the sculptor’s friends were present to witness it. Mary Howitt and her daughter were interested spectators, and Miss Howitt years after described the event in a letter. «He sent us word of their approach», she wrote, «and with immense interest we watched the swarthy creatures, their great horns separated widely from each other, their black hides bristling with a few stiff hairs, stolidly bearing along the Via Sistina to the Piazza Trinita dei Monti, that stupendous mass of rough-hewn marble, which, while contrasting in color, was in character as uncouth as themselves».

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the Russian words:

Exercise 4. Make these statements T (true) or F (false) according to the information in the text:

1. John Warrington Wood can be said to belong to the English school of sculpture.

2. Though John Warrington Wood received his early training at the School of Art at Warrington, his native place, he developed his style in Rome, where he came under the influence of John Gipson, and in spite of his admiration of Bernini, his artistic sympathies were with the followers of Canova.

3. A marked revival of the art of sculpture took place in Italy during his lifetime

4. Living as he did in Italy, he was, perforce, impressed by the consummate style of Donatello, the dignity and grandeur of Michelangelo…

5. He was born, of humble parentage at Warrington in 1840 and received his early training at the local School of Art.

6. He exhibited his first original work, a study entitled «Spring» in 1863, and from this time his success was assured.

7. A few years later he established himself in Rome, and though he paid frequent visits to his birthplace, Italy was his home until his death. 

8. Once, after an attack of Roman fever, he was threatened with blindness, and his vision was not preserved until his death.

9. Mary Howitt and her daughter were interested spectators, and Miss Howitt years after described the event in a letter.

10. The block of marble from which «St. Michael overcoming Satan» was chiseled, was selected from the quarries a friend of his.

Exercise 5.Use an expression or word from the text instead of the Russian one in brackets:

1. He is а (1) (выдающийся) artist.

2. He (2) (получил заказ) for a life-size statue.

 3. The young artist (3) (поселился) in Rome.

4. Warrington Wood was impressed by the (4) (величие) of the art of Michelangelo.

5. In these creations of Donatello we can see the (5) (совершенный) style of the artist.  

6. Schiller would not (6) (держаться вдали) from the storm and stress of his generation.

 7. The followers of Michelangelo (7) (не доставало) the vigor and individuality of the great master.

8. If you do not hurry, you (8) (рискуете) of missing the exhibition being held in the Hermitage.

9. French painters (9) (заимствовали) the decorative use of clear colors from Japanese wood engravers.

 10. Van Gogh’s first attempts to get recognition as a painter (10) (не имели успеха).

Exercise 6. Fill in the gaps with the correct prepositions or postpositions:

1. John Warrington Wood cannot be said to belong (1) _____ the English school of sculpture.

2. He developed his style in Rome, where he came under the influence of John Gipson, and (2) ___ spite (3) ____ his admiration of Bernini, his artistic sympathies were with the followers of Canova.

3. A marked revival of the art of sculpture took place in England (4) _____ his lifetime.

4. John Warrington Wood looked (5) _____ Donatello and Michelangelo, further into the past, and got his inspiration from the Greeks and their imitators.

5. He was not content to catch the spirit of the antique and then express what he saw in his own terms and (6) ____ his method.

6. Phidias was his model, and those who cannot interpret the great convention with freedom run the risk (7) ___ merely accentuating their inferiority to the old masters without adding a fresh paragraph to the history of art 

7. (8) ___ considering the achievement of Warrington Wood we must not overlook his limitations.

8. He was born, (9) ___ humble parentage at Warrington in 1839 and received his early training at the local School of Art.

9. His fame rests (10) ___ his ideal statues, but he received many commissions for portraits, and is said to have executed no less than sixty busts.

10. Some citizens of Warrington, proud of their fellow-townsman’s achievement, resolved to give him his opportunity, and having collected a thousand pounds, commissioned him to work his will (11) ___ his own and his town’s glory.

11. The block of marble from which this was chiseled was selected (12) ____ the quarries by the sculptor himself.

12. Buffaloes had been banished from Rome by the municipality, and it was only (13) ___ especial privilege that Warrington Wood was permitted to employ their strength.

Exercise 7. Match the words (1 – 14) with the words (a – n) as they occur together in the text:

Exercise 8. Match the two halves of the sentences:

Questions for revision

Exercise 1. Answer the questions:

1. Where and when was John Warrington Wood born?

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2. Where did he get his early training?

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3. What can you say about his career as a student?

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4. Where did he live most of his life?

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5. Why can’t we say that he belonged to the English school of sculpture?

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6. From whom did he get his inspiration?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. Who was his model?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. What statue of his assured his success as a sculptor?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. What did his townsmen do to show their recognition of his talent?

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10. What sculptures by Warrington Wood can you name?

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Exercise 2. Describe a sculpture according to the following plan:

1.        THE GENERAL EFFECT: the title and the name of the sculptor; the period or trend represented?

2.        THE CONTENTS OF THE SCULPTURE: place, time and setting; the accessories, the dress and environment; any attempt to render the emotions of the model; what does the sculptor accentuate in his subject?

3.        THE COMPOSITION: How is the sitter represented? Against what background? Any prevailing format? Do the hands (head, body) look natural and informal?

4.        INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION: Does it exemplify a high degree of artistic skill? What feelings or ideas does it evoke in the viewer?

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5. Резьба по дереву. (Wood Carving)

TEXT 1. Wood Carving.

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

Lumber or timber is wood in any of its stages from felling through readiness for use as structural material for construction, or wood pulp for paper production. Lumber is supplied either rough or finished. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and other items requiring additional cutting and shaping. It is available in many species, usually hardwoods. Finished lumber is supplied in standard sizes, mostly for the construction industry, primarily softwood from coniferous species including pine, fir and spruce (collectively known as Spruce-pine-fir), cedar, and hemlock, but also some hardwood, for high-grade flooring.

Wood carving (xyloglyphy) is a form of working wood by means of a cutting tool (knife) in one hand or a chisel by two hands or with one hand on a chisel and one hand on a mallet, resulting in a wooden figure or figurine, or in the sculptural ornamentation of a wooden object.

Probably the two most common woods used for carving are basswood (aka tilia or lime) and tupelo, both are hardwoods that are relatively easy to work with. Chestnut, butternut, oak, American walnut, mahogany and teak are also very good woods; while for fine work Italian walnut, apple, pear, box or plum, are usually chosen.

A wood carver begins a new carving by selecting a chunk of wood the approximate size and shape of the figure he or she wishes to create or, if the carving is to be large, several pieces of wood may be laminated together to create the required size. The type of wood is important. Hardwoods are more difficult to shape but have greater luster and longevity. Softer woods may be easier to carve, but are less resistant to damage. Any wood can be carved but they all have different qualities and characteristics. Once the sculptor has selected their wood, he or she begins a general shaping process using gouges of various sizes. The gouge is a curved blade that can remove large portions of wood smoothly. For harder woods, the sculptor may use gouges sharpened with stronger bevels, about 35 degrees, and a mallet similar to a stone carver's. The terms 'gouge' and 'chisel' are open to confusion. Correctly, a gouge is a tool with a curved cross section and a chisel is a tool with a flat cross section. However, professional carvers tend to refer to them all as 'chisels'. Smaller sculptures may require the wood carver to use a knife, and larger pieces might require the use of a saw.

After the carving and finishing is completed, the artist may seal and color the wood with a variety of natural oils, such as walnut or linseed oil which protects the wood from dirt and moisture. Carvers seldom use gloss varnish as it creates too shiny a surface, which reflects so much light it can confuse the form; carvers refer to this as 'the toffee apple effect'. Objects made of wood are frequently finished with a layer of wax, which protects the wood and gives a soft lustrous sheen. A wax finish is comparatively fragile though and only suitable for in-door carvings.

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the Russian words:

Exercise 4. a) Match the words (1-8) with their synonyms (a-h):

a)

b) Match the words (1-7) with their antonyms (a-g):

sharp, indoor, probably, exact, blunt, hard, curved, unlikely, outdoor, approximate, seldom, soft, straight, frequently.

Exercise 5. Translate the following derivatives:

1. result - to result - resultant - resultative – resulting

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2. to select - selective - selected - selector - selection;

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3. general - generally - generalized - generalization;

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4. sharp - sharply - to sharpen - sharpened - sharpener;

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5. to confuse - confusion - confused - confusing;

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6. to protect - protection - protective - protector;

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7. object - objective - objectively - to object - objection;

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8. to compare - comparison - comparative - comparatively;

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9. to require - required - requirement - requiring;

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10. to finish - finish - finishing - finished.

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Exercise 6. Make up questions to the words in bold:

1. Chestnut, butternut, oak, American walnut, mahogany and teak are also very good woods.

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2. A wood carver begins a new carving by selecting a chunk of wood the approximate size and shape of the figure he or she wishes to create.

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3. Hardwoods have greater luster and longevity.

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4. Softer woods are less resistant to damage.

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5. Carvers seldom use gloss varnish.

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6. A wax finish is comparatively fragile though and only suitable for indoor carvings.

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7. Objects made of wood are frequently finished with a layer of wax.

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8. For harder woods, the sculptor may use gouges sharpened with stronger bevels.

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9. Linseed oil protects the wood from dirt and moisture.

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10. After the carving and finishing is completed, the artist may seal and color the wood.

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Exercise 7. Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F) according to the text:

1. Wood carving is called xyloglyphy?
2. Several pieces of woods can’t be laminated together.
3. Hardwoods don’t serve long.
4. Softer woods are hard to carve.
5. Only few types of wood can be used by carvers.
6. Carvers usually use a gouge and a mallet.
7. A chisel is a tool with a curved cross section.
8. Wooden objects need to always be varnished.
9. Oil performs purely decorative functions.
10. Wood carving doesn’t presuppose making sculptures.

Exercise 8. Translate into English using Phrasal Verbs (think over, go on, give up, put up with, put off, take up, cook up, put on, look for, cut down):

1. Джон решил заняться резьбой по дереву.

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2. Все молодые ели в нашем лесу срубили.

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3. Не откладывай работу на последний день.

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4. Почему ты бросил свое хобби? У тебя хорошо получалось.

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5. Сначала мне нужно обдумать узор.

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6. Прежде чем приступать к работе, надень рабочую одежду.

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7. Я ищу качественное сырье для проекта.

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8. Даже если что-то не удается, нужно продолжать и не сдаваться.

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9. Ты придумал, как можно использовать этот брусок?

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10. Нам придется смириться с мнением начальства.

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Questions for revision

Exercise 1. Answer these questions:

1. What is wood carving?

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2. What species of trees are usually used for carving?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Which species of trees are considered expensive?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. What’s the difference between hard and soft woods? What advantages and disadvantages do they possess?

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5. Can any wood be carved?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. What’s the difference between gouge and chisel?

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. What tools are required to make wooden objects?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. What is linseed oil used for?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. Do carvers often use varnish?

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

10. What qualities does wax give to the wood?

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 Exercise 2. Find extra information about one of the following topics.

1. Wood carving in Old Russia.
2. Wood carving nowadays.
3. Wooden objects in interior decoration.
4. Wooden houses vs blocks.
5. Wood carving as a hobby and a profession.

   ---

UNIT 8. Резьба по металлу. (Metalwork)

TEXT 1. Metalwork.

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

A precious metal is a rare metallic chemical element of high economic value.

Chemically, the precious metals are less reactive than most elements, have high luster and high electrical conductivity. Historically, precious metals were important as currency, but are now regarded mainly as investment and industrial commodities. Gold, silver, platinum and palladium each have an ISO 4217 currency code. The best-known precious metals are gold and silver. While both have industrial uses, they are better known for their uses in art, jewelry, and coinage. Other precious metals include the platinum group metals: ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum, of which platinum is the most widely traded.

The demand for precious metals is driven not only by their practical use, but also by their role as investments and a store of value. Palladium was valued at a little under half the price of gold, and platinum at around twice that of gold. Silver is substantially less expensive than these metals, but is often traditionally considered a precious metal for its role in coinage and jewelry.

        Engraving is the practice of incising a design on to a hard, usually flat surface, by cutting grooves into it. The result may be a decorated object in itself, as when silver, gold, steel, or glass are engraved, or may provide an intaglio printing plate, of copper or another metal, for printing images on paper as prints or illustrations; these images are also called engravings.

Engraving was a historically important method of producing images on paper, both in artistic printmaking, and also for commercial reproductions and illustrations for books and magazines. It has long been replaced by photography in its commercial applications and, partly because of the difficulty of learning the technique, is much less common in printmaking, where it has been largely replaced by etching and other techniques.

Traditional engraving, by burin or with the use of machines, continues to be practiced by goldsmiths, glass engravers, gunsmiths and others, while modern industrial techniques such as photoengraving and laser engraving have many important applications. Engraved gems were an important art in the ancient world, revived at the Renaissance, although the term traditionally covers relief as well as intaglio carvings, and is essentially a branch of sculpture rather than engraving, as drills were the usual tools.

In antiquity, the only engraving on metal that could be carried out is evident in the shallow grooves found in some jewelry after the beginning of the 1st Millennium B.C. Engraved gem is a term for any carved or engraved semi-precious stone; this was an important art form in the ancient world, and remained popular until the 19th century.

In the European Middle Ages goldsmiths used engraving to decorate and inscribe metalwork. It is thought that they began to print impressions of their designs to record them. From this grew the engraving of copper printing plates to produce artistic images on paper, known as old master prints in Germany in the 1430s. Italy soon followed. Many early engravers came from a goldsmithing background. The first and greatest period of the engraving was from about 1470 to 1530, with such masters as Martin Schongauer, Albrecht Durer, and Lucas van Leiden.

Thereafter engraving tended to lose ground to etching, which was a much easier technique for the artist to learn. But many prints combined the two techniques: although Rembrandt's prints are generally all called etchings for convenience, many of them have some burin or drypoint work, and some have nothing else. By the nineteenth century, most engraving was for commercial illustration.

Before the advent of photography, engraving was used to reproduce other forms of art, for example paintings. Engravings continued to be common in newspapers and many books into the early 20th century, as they were cheaper to use in printing than photographic images. Engraving has also always been used as a method of original artistic expression.

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the Russian words:

Exercise 4. a) Match the words (1-8) with their synonyms (a-h):

b) Match the words (1-7) with their antonyms (a-g):

Exercise 5. Translate the following derivatives:

1. to engrave - engraving - engraver – engraved

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2. to replace - replacement - replaceable – irreplaceable

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3. printing - to print - printer – print

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4. to illustrate - illustration - illustrator – illustratory

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5. to revive - revival – reviving

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6. evidence - evident – evidently

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7. to inscribe - inscribable - inscription – inscriptive

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8. to record - record - recorder – recordable

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9. to follow - following – follower

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10. convenient - convenience – conveniently

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Exercise 6. Make up questions to the words in bold:

1. It has long been replaced by photography.

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2. Many early engravers came from a goldsmithing background.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. The first and greatest period of the engraving was from about 1470 to 1530.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Rembrandt's prints are generally all called etchings for convenience.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. By the nineteenth century, most engraving was for commercial illustration.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. Traditional engraving, by burin or with the use of machines, continues to be practiced by goldsmiths, glass engravers, gunsmiths and others.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. Engraving has also always been used as a method of original artistic expression.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. But many prints combined the two techniques.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. In the European Middle Ages goldsmiths used engraving to decorate and inscribe metalwork.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

10. Engravings continued to be common in newspapers and many books.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 7. Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F) according to the text:

1. Engraving, etching and incising are synonymous terms.
2. Glass can’t be engraved.
3. Engraving is performed with the help of burin.
4. Engraved gems appeared at the Renaissance.
5. Many engravers were first goldsmiths.
6. Etching and engraving are two different techniques and can’t be combined.
7. Engraving is easier than etching.
8. Engraving isn’t used anymore.
9. Engraving can be used to decorate guns.
10. Engraving used to be common in newspapers and books as it was cheap.

Exercise 8. Translate into English. Mind degrees of comparison of the given adjectives:

1. Золото - это один из самых дорогих металлов.

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2. Что дороже - золото или платина?

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3. Серебряные украшения - самые доступные.

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4. Желтые алмазы встречаются реже.

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5. Драгоценные металлы лучше проводят электричество.

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6. Раньше алюминий ценился гораздо больше, чем в наши дни.

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7. Самые тонкие пластины можно сделать из золота.

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8. Чем необычней цвет камня, тем он дороже.

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9. Самый дешевый жемчуг - речной.

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10. На Западе золотые украшения менее популярны, чем в восточных странах.

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Questions for revision

Exercise 1. Answer these questions:

1. What is engraving?

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What materials can be engraved?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. What was engraving originally used for?

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. What professions are closely connected with engraving?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Who were most famous masters in the history of engraving?

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6. What’s the difference between engraving and etching?

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. What tools are usually used by engravers?

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. What was the greatest period of engraving?

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9. How do they call engraved precious or semi-precious stones?

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10. What makes engraving and important craft up to nowadays?

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 Exercise 2. Find extra information about one of the following topics.

1. Foreign engravers.
2. Russian engravers.
3. The cult of gold.
4. Precious and semi-precious stones.
5. Metalwork in interior.

UNIT 9. Как оценивать искусство. Изучение искусства. (How to Appreciate Art. Studying Art.)

TEXT 1. Studying Art. 

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation of the words from the text. Write the transcriptions of the words using a dictionary.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.

We can take great pleasure in merely looking at art, just as we take pleasure in the view of a distant mountain range or watching the sun set over the ocean. But art, unlike nature, is a human creation. It is one of the many ways we express ourselves and attempt to communicate. A work of art is the product of human intelligence, and we can meet it with our own intelligence on equal footing.

The understanding of process - the how - often contributes quite a lot to our appreciation of art. If you understand why painting in watercolor may be different from painting in oil, why clay responds differently to the artist’s hands than does wood or glass, why a stone building has different structural needs than one made of poured concrete - you will have a richer appreciation of the artist’s expression.

Knowing the place of a work of art in history - what went before and came after - can also deepen your understanding. Artists learn to make art by studying the achievements of the past and observing the efforts of their contemporaries. They adapt ideas to serve their own needs and then bequeath those ideas to future generations of artists. The more you know about this living current of artistic energy, the more interesting each work of art will become. For example, Matisse assumed that his audience would know that Venus was the ancient Roman goddess of love. But he also hoped that they would be familiar with one Venus in particular, a famous Greek statue known as the “Venus de Milo”. Knowing the Greek work deepens our pleasure in Matisse’s version, for we see that in “carving” his Venus out of a sheet of white paper he evokes the way a long-ago sculptor carved her out of a block of white marble.

An artist may create a specific work for any of a thousand reasons. An awareness of the why may give some insight as well. Looking at Van Gogh’s “The Starry Night”, it might help you to know that Van Gogh was intrigued by the belief that people journeyed to a star after their death, and that there they continued their lives. The tree that rises so dramatically in the foreground of the painting is a cypress, which has often served as a symbol of both death and eternal life. This knowledge might help you to understand why Van Gogh felt so strongly about the night sky, and what his painting might have meant to him.

But no matter how much you study, Van Gogh’s painting will never mean for you exactly what it meant for him, nor should it. An artist’s work grows from a lifetime of experiences, thoughts, and emotions; no one else can duplicate them exactly. Great works of art hold many meanings. The greatest of them seem to speak anew to each generation and to each attentive observer. The most important thing is that some works of art come to mean something for you, that your own experiences, thoughts, and emotions find a place in them, for then you will have made them live.

Vocabulary and Grammar Exercise 

Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the Russian words:

Exercise 4. Use one of the words given in the box to fill in each gap:

1. Art, unlike nature, is a human ___.

2. A work of art is the product of human ____.

3. The understanding of the process - the how - often contributes quite a lot to our ___ of art.

4. Knowing the place of a work of art in history can also deepen your ____.

5. Artists learn to make art by studying the achievements of the past and observing the efforts of their ____.

6. The more you know about this living ___ of artistic energy, the more interesting each work of art will become.

7. An awareness of the why may give some ___ as well.

8. An artist’s work grows from a lifetime of experiences, thoughts, and ___.