Элективный курс Из истории английской литературы
методическая разработка по английскому языку (10 класс) по теме

Элективный курс

по английскому языку

Из истории английской

литературы

Introduction

Most of the literature we are going to read and discuss is what we call canonical. We will study a group of authors who are generally agreed to be the best, or at least the best representatives of their time.

Remember, too, that the canon does change. In our course we tried to cover "the canon" and "literary history".

What is literary history?

LITERARY HISTORICAL PERIODS

Early English Literature

Middle English Literature (1350-1495)

Renaissance Literature (1495—1603)

        Early Seventeenth Century Literature (1603—1660)

Restoration Literature (1660-1700)

Eighteenth Century Literature (1700-1785)

Romantic Period (1785-1830)

Victorian Period (1830-1903)

Modem Period (1903-1950)

Post-Modem Period (1950—)

We will study canonical literary works in some kind of chronological order and we think it is useful. It will help us to see the historical relations between works and authors and "movements". We will use the divisions provided by the Norton Anthology.

These periods and divisions are not perfect. We use them to give a guide to historical relations between authors and "movements", and to explore trends from one period to another.

Chapter One

Anglo-Saxon Times

V-XV centuries

In 383 the Romans began to leave Britain. The Picts and Scots were tribes1 from the North which by 407 attacked the Britons.

The Britons asked Anglo-Saxon soldiers to come and help them.

The Anglo-Saxons were well-trained and strong soldiers. They helped the Picts and Scots, but when the Britons asked them to leave they didn't and stayed.

After about one hundred and fifty years of fighting some Britons went to Wales, others became slaves2.

The Anglo-Saxons founded a lot of kingdoms: Kent, Essex, Wessex, Mercia, Northumbria.

In 789 the Vikings began to attack the British Isles. They came from Norway, Sweden and Denmark. They made a big army. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms couldn't fight the Vikings.

The Danish kings ruled in Britain for 24 years. The last of them was Edward the Confessor. The Britons didn't want his cousin, the Duke of Normandy, William, to become their king. They wanted Harold, Earl of Wessex to rule the country.

So William had to fight. He gathered an army and in October 1066 he conquered Britain and became the king. So, he got the nickname William the conqueror. It was the last invasion1 in the history of Britain.

_________

1a tribe — племя

2a slave — раб

Lesson 1

Celtic Folklore

The word folklore2, 'The Lore of the People’, was first used by William John Thomas in 1846. Before that the tones, tales, fables of the people were usually known as popular literature.

They were composed, told and retold. It is often hard tо tell how old a tale was.

Celtic Folklore consists of myths, folk tales and legends.

A myth — Mythos — meant everything told by the mouth of man, a word or a story.

There are two main canons of myths, Irish and Welsh.

Irish Mythology

The oldest known myths were composed in 300 ВС3. It was the time of Celtic Iron Age4 of Ireland. The Irish believed in many Gods and had their own priests5 — the Druids, who passed these stories. With the coming of Christianity in the 5th century AD6 they were passed on by bards7. They were first written down by early Irish Christian priests in the 7th century. The tradition continued, the priests continued writing them down. The manuscripts were copied and then lost.

These myths were kept in Irish manuscripts written down between the 12th and 14th centuries AD in such books as "The Book of the Dun Cow", "The Book of Leinster" and "The Yellow Book of Lecan". Some were written in the 18th century.

They were first translated into English at the beginning of the twentieth century by Lady Gregory, Miss Eleanor Hull and Thomas Kinsella.

The myths are collected into four cycles8:

• The Mythological Cycle tells about the battles for Ireland by six different races. This is the nearest thing to а Celtic creation myth9.

• The Ulster Cycle (or Ultonian or Connorian) tells about The Curse of Ulster. It was written in the late La Tene period, the 3rd to 1st centuries ВС.

• The Fenian Cycle (or Ossianic) tells about Finn mac Cumhal, leader of the Fianna. It was written around the 3rd century AD.

• The Historical Cycle (or Cycle of the Kings) is a mixture of Christianized stories written in the 3rd century ВС.

________________

1 an invasion — завоевание

2 folk — people, lore — traditions and knowledge

3 ВС = before Christ — до рождества Христова

4 Iron Age — a period when iron replaced bronze in making tools and weapons. The Celts started using iron only after the Roman invasion.

5 a priest — священник

6 AD (Lot.) = Anno Domini — the Christian era — нашей эры. Christianity was brought to Britain by the Romans as well as iron.

7a bard — a Celtic minstrel, a poet. Nowadays this word is used more often meaning a person who composes music and writes words to his songs and sings them himself.

8 cycle — цикл

9 creation myth — миф о создании мира

We can meet many different characters in the Irish myths. Some of them are the following:

Merrows

Good or bad weather, a male merrow sits on a rock, looking at the sea for bottles of brandy lost from wrecked ships. He is a friendly fellow with a red nose (some say because of too much drinking of brandy). He is a bringer of good luck. He wears a red hat and has a green body, with green hair and teeth. He has the eyes of a pig and wears no clothes.

A female merrow (mulrruhgach), also called a mermaid (muruch) or a sea-maiden (maighdean mhara), is lovely and graceful. She has the tail of a fish. She sometimes wears a dress as white as the sea foam1. The dress is decorated with red and purple seaweeds. She also wears a red hat. She attracts men with her beauty. In legends the singing of a mermaid is described as irresistible. As she sits upon the rocks, she tries to attract fishermen to her. But if they come too near, she dives into the sea, laughing at the men. When a sailor doesn't come home from the sea it is sometimes said he "married a mermaid". She causes rain to fall from the sky.

On the sea she is wild, but on land she becomes quiet. If a man can take her red cap, she will forget her past life and marry him. She is a loving wife. A married merrow seldom laughs.

If she finds her cap and puts the cap on her head, she will remember her past watery life and will leave her home and her husband for the sea. When she remembers her past marine life she returns her youth and beauty that she lost while living among the people.

_____

1 foam — пена

The Pooka

The pooka comes out at night, sometimes as an eagle flying to the moon. Sometimes it's a black goat. It is a bird, a bat, a donkey and a nightmare. Most often it appears as a terrible black horse, huge and sleek, breathing blue fire, with yellow eyes.

Sometimes it follows ships to the sea. Often at night, as a black horse, the pooka takes a man for a ride around the country.

Yet for all its black deeds, the pooka now is a tame creature compared to what it used to be. In ancient days the pooka was lord over all that went forth after dark, except those on missions of mercy. All roads belonged to it; and few who travelled them lived to tell. The pooka kicked hard enough to crush human bones and could lift a man like an empty sack onto its back and jump with him into the sea, so deep that he drowned. Other times it jumped over a cliff and let the man fall to the bottom.

But Brian Boru tamed it with magic made from three hairs from a pooka's tail and thrown round its neck.

Since then it takes only drunkards on its mad ridings and always returns them to where it found them.

When it rains while the sun is shining it means that the pooka will be out that night. When berries are killed by frost it is the pooka's spit which is upon them and they shouldn't be eaten.

The Will-O'-The-Wisps

The Will-O'-The-Wisps, or fairy lights, are quiet and helpful. They appear in the misty Irish mountains to help searchers to locate someone lost or drowned. It's said hat those who can see the lights have the gift of knowing when somebody of their families is in danger.

Fairy Animals

Many animals walk the fairy underlands and water ways. Great horses come out of the sea in a fisherman's net. Cows often rise up from the sea in search of green grass to feed their calves. On May Day especially, fairy cows appear and bring good luck to the farmers whose fields they cross.

Black cats and lake snakes guard the fairy treasure. Cats were once snakes and that is why they are so hard to ill and so dangerous.

So, are fairy animals fairies? Or are they animals?

Welsh Mythology

The Mabinogian

The Welsh Myth has almost the same history as the Irish myth, but it is not so old. The earliest stories were composed and passed on by the Druids until the Roman conquest of Britain. Then these stories were passed on by story-tellers and old grannies. The Christian priests wrote down what was left of them in the 13th—14th centuries, in documents such as "The Peniarth manuscripts" (about 1200), "The White Book of Rhydderch" (about 1300-1325) and "The Red Book of Hergest" (about 1375-1425). They were then rewritten and transcribed many times. They were collected together at the end of the 19th century and published in English for the first time by Lady Charlotte Guest.

There are eleven stories.

The first four form stories of British1 kings, warriors2 and wizards3, visitors from the Otherworld4. These are the oldest ones. They are:

• Pwyll Prince of Dyfed

• Branwen Daughter of Llyr

• Manawydan ap (son of) Llyr

• Math ap Mathonwy

The second four are early Celtic Arthurian myths. They are:

• The Dream of Macsen Wledig

• Lludd and Llefelys

• Culhwch and Olwen

• The Dream of Rhonabwy

The last three are later Arthurian romances, mostly Norman-French and each tale has the adventures of one knight5. They are:

• The Lady of the Fountain (concerning Owein ap Urien)

• Peredur ap Efrawg

• Gereint ap Erbin

_______

1 British means Welsh here: England was not Britain then.

2 a warrior — воин

3 a wizard — волшебник

4 the Otherworld — the Welsh equivalent of the Irish Tir Nan ()g or Fairyland, sometimes called Annwn  

5 a knight — рыцарь                    

► Tasks to Lesson 1

1. Answer the questions

1. When did the first myths appear in Britain?

2. What's the name of the Celtic priests? Why do you think they passed the myths on?

3. What was first: AD or ВС?

4. Can we hear the word "a bard" nowadays? What do these people do?        

5. Why were the myths collected into cycles?

2. Translate the words and word combinations

1. irresistible, marine life, bat, donkey, nightmare, tame, sleek, cliff, calves

3. Name all the literary historical periods

4. Complete the sentences

1. The word folklore, 'The Lore of the People’, was first used by _________ in _____.
2. Celtic Folklore consists of ___________________________.
3. The Mythological Cycle tells about ____________________________.
4. The Historical Cycle is a mixture of ___________________________
5. The Welsh Myth has almost the same history as _________________. The earliest stories were composed and passed on by ____________________________________.

5. Retell the myth about Merrows

Lesson2

Heroic Epic Poem

We only have about 30,000 lines of Anglo-Saxon literature today. The epic poem "Beowulf” is about 10% of this.

It is the most important national epos, a poem of 3183 lines, which is practically complete. Now it is kept in the British Museum.

Bards (or skalds) were singing the story "Beowulf” two hundred years before it was first written down. The oldest known written version of the story is an epic poem that comes from the 8th century AD. "Beowulf is one of the longest and earliest of Anglo-Saxon writings. It is translated into many languages. There are many different English translations of the original poem.

Beowulf is an epic — a long poem told in an elevated style1 about the heroic actions of noble personages. Like other traditional or folk epics (for example, the Illiad and Odyssey)2, "Beowulf came from traditional tales or legends.

An epic is a long poem describing the feats3 of a legendary or traditional hero.

Literary epics are based on the traditional epics. There are some characteristics of a literary epic:

• the characters are of noble birth, or they are supernatural beings from the past;

• if there is a lower person, his name is never mentioned;

• the action is connected with the fate4 of the whole human race;

• gods or semidivine5 creatures come to help;

• the author usually names his theme at the beginning and calls on the muses to help him in his task of story;

• the poem usually begins at a critical point in the action;

• the style is noble and majestic;

• the characters speak ceremoniously in long speeches;

• there are long descriptions of characters or things;

• we can see magic things and numbers. Number 3 was magic as it is the reflection of the past, the present and the future.

______________

1 an elevated style — возвышенный стиль

2 the Illiad and Odyssey — epics written by Homer, a Greek poet and philosopher

3 a feat — an act or derd showing unusual daring, skill, etc.

4 the fate — судьба

5 semidivine — полубожественный

Beowulf

The poem "Beowulf' takes place in the "Land of the Geats", southern Sweden and Denmark, in the 6th century. Originally, it was written in Old English1.

Old English was an inflectional2 language and did not have any order of words to be understood. For example, "The bishop the king meets" in Old English was understood just as in Modem English one says, "The bishop meets the king."

Middle English came about when Old English lost most of its inflections and got prepositions (a preposition — a word or phrase placed typically before a noun showing the relation of that noun to a verb, an adjective, or another noun, as at, by, with, from, in, to). During this period, the language was greatly influenced by French, especially after the Norman Conquest in 1066.

The great writer Geoffrey Chaucer wrote "The Canterbury Tales" in this period. Unlike "Beowulf, this work can be understood easily. Only spelling of Middle English is different from that of Modem English.

English really began to change with the birth of America. Today there are not only British and American English but Black English, Jamaican English, cockney, many pidgins, Australian English, and many others.

But English was affected by many other languages, too. French has had a great influence. So have many others. Scottish and Irish, Latin and German, Spanish, and others have influenced English. Words, phrases, even styles of speech have been "borrowed". It is clear that English is a language that is changing as years go by.

_______________

1 The English language's history can be divided into three parts:

Old English, Middle English, and Modem English. Old English is very much different from Modem English. Translations are needed to understand Old English texts. "Beowulf” can only be read in its original text by an expert in Old English.

2 an inflection — a change of the form of a word by the addition of an affix, as in English dogs from dog, or by changing the form of a base, as in English spoke from speak, that indicates grammatical features such as number, person, mood, or tense.

Have a look at the original text of the poem.

Hwaet! We Gardena in geardagum,

peodcyninga, prym gefrunon,

hu tha aepelingas ellen fremedon.

Oft Scyld Scefing sceapena preatum,

monegum maegpum meodosetla ofteah,

egsode eorlas, sythan aerest wearth

          feasceaft funden;

Can you read and understand it? We are not sure you can. We can read either its translation in Modern English or its retelling.

A retelling is an adaptation of a story, told again or differently.

A translation is an expression of the sense of a text in another language or in another, simpler form.

Read the translation by Frances B. Grummere (1910).

        Now Beowulf bode in the burg of the Scyldings,

leader beloved, and long he ruled

         in fame with all folk, since his father had gone

away from the world, till awoke an heir,

haughty Healfdene, who held through life,

sage and sturdy, the Scyldings glad.

Then, one after one, there woke to him,

to the chieftain of clansmen, children four

Heorogar, then Hrothgar, then Halga brave;

and I heard that -was -'s queen,

the Heathoscylfing's helpmate dear.

To Hrothgar was given such glory of war,

such honor of combat, that all his kin

obeyed him gladly till great grew his band

of youthful comrades. It came in his mind

to bid his henchmen a hall uprear,

a master mead-house, mightier far

than ever was seen by the sons of earth,

and within it, then, to old and young

         he would all allot that the Lord had sent him,

save only the land and the lives of his men.

This is another, later translation made by Dr. David Breeden (modem):

Listen:

You have heard of the Danish Kings

in the old days and how

they were great warriors.

Shield, the son of Sheaf,

took many an enemy's chair,

terrified many a warrior,

after he was found an orphan.

He prospered under the sky

until people everywhere

listened when he spoke.

He was a good king!

Shield had a son, child for his yard, sent by God

to comfort the people,

to keep them from fear —

Grain was his name.

Compare these two translations.

Which one is easier to understand? Why?

Read the retelling of this heroic epic.

Text

►Pre-reading Task

1. Guess the meaning of the following words:

a monster, a giant, an attack, a demon, a trophy, a distance, philosophy, a battle, legendary, a dragon, an effect, ceremony.

2. Do you know any stories about monsters, giants, dragons and witches in your country?    Do you like to read these stories? Why? Were there any kings and warriors in your country in this period of time (the sixth century)?

The main characters are:

Beowulf, a Geat hero

Hrothgar, a king of the Danes

Unferth, a Dane

Wiglaf, Beowulf s nephew

1

Long ago there lived in Denmark a king Hrothgar. In Hrothgar's Danish kingdom lived a monster-giant. Its name was Grendel. Hrothgar built a wonderful palace for his guests and warriors. Every night there .was a feast in the palace with a lot of music, happy songs and laughing. Everyone in the kingdom was happy. But Grendel didn't like it and was very angry. Every night he walked around the countryside and came to the King's palace. He ate  fifteen of Hrothgar's warriors sleeping there. Then, before going away, the monster took fifteen more men and carried them back to his house under the water. He did so every day for twelve years. King Hrothgar could do nothing because his warriors were not able to fight this monster.

Word of this terror came across the sea to the land of the Geats. It was ruled by Hygelac. Beowulf was Hygelac's helper and warrior. He was a man of great strength and courage. He heard the tale of Grendel's attacks and decided to free the Danes from this demon and went to Denmark with his warriors. They crossed the sea and came to Hrothgar's palace. There the King had a feast in Beowulf’s honour with a lot of eating, drinking, dancing and music. Every warrior told tales about his fights. They wanted to be the best so sometimes they just boasted. Beowulf told about the battle when he killed nine sea-monsters at one time. Everyone thought that he was boasting.

After the feast, Hrothgar and his warriors went to sleep into other places and left Beowulf and his men in the hall of the palace. The warriors fell asleep but Beowulf didn't.

Some time passed and Grendel came, "with an un-lovely light, like a hellish flame in his eyes". He opened the door with one of his fingers. He took one sleeping warrior and drank his blood. He did it "as a wolf eats a rabbit". He wanted to take another warrior but Beowulf began fighting. Beowulf was fighting without any weapon1 because no weapon could help to kill the monster. The monster was strong but Beowulf was stronger. He cut the monster's right arm off. Grendel ran back to his home...

The brave warrior Beowulf hung his bloody trophy, Grendel's arm, on the wall above the door inside the hall. There was a great feast all over the country. Everyone thanked Beowulf, the strongest and the greatest warrior.

_______

1weapon — оружие

2

But on the next night, Grendel's mother made "a sorry journey to avenge1 her son". She killed Aeschere, Hrothgar's dearest friend and a heroic warrior. She took Grendel's arm from the wall, and ran away into the darkness.

Beowulf did not know of the she-monster's visit until the next morning. He was sleeping in a house at some distance from the palace. Beowulf tried to tell the King his philosophy of life and death: not to cry, but to avenge.

So the Danes went to the river. They saw blood on the water and understood that the monster's home was here. Unferth gave Beowulf his sword and he went to the home of the she-monster under the water.

As Beowulf went under the waters, a lot of creatures came upon him, Beowulf killed them and came to the cave of Grendel's mother and began to do battle. Beowulf was not lucky and couldn't kill the she-monster with Unferth's sword. Beowulf was almost won. But on the floor of the cave, in the middle of other weapons, there was a legendary sword that had once belonged2 to a race of ancient giants. He took it and put it into the heart of Grendel's mother. She rose, then fell in helplessly. Beowulf turned and saw Grendel himself on the ground nearby. He took the sword again, and cut Grendel's head off its body.

Then, when the hero swam out of the river, the sword disappeared. The Danes were happy to see Beowulf alive.

Now the time had come for Beowulf to go back to his Geat homeland. He left Denmark in great glory. When he came to Lord Hygelac, he was given riches and high position. And after several years, Beowulf himself became King among the Geats.

_______

1 to avenge — отомстить

2 to belong — принадлежать

3

Beowulf was a king for fifty years. One day a servant found an old treasure. While its guard-dragon slept, he took away a golden cup. He gave it to his King. But the dragon got up and began to bum the Geat villages with fire. Beowulf was now an old man. But he decided to help his kingdom and to win the dragon's rich treasure for his people. He knew it was going to be his final battle. The moment of the battle came. Beowulf went up to the dragon's cave. He came through the fire and struck the dragon's side with his ancient sword. No effect. The dragon only fired more. All the warriors were afraid and went away. Only Wiglaf, a young kinsman, stood by to help his King. All the others ran away. The dragon ran and put its terrible teeth into Beowulf’s neck. Wiglaf attacked him with his sword. Beowulf gave it the death blow with his war-knife.

Weak from loss of blood, the old hero was dying. As his last act, Beowulf gave Wiglaf the last of his family jewels and armor1.

The body of the hero was burned on a fire, according to the pagan custom.

And so, with a great ceremony, the Geats cried over the passing of Beowulf, who had a heroic life with a heroic death.

__________

1 jewels and armor — драгоценности и оружие

Supply answers to the following questions.

1.  Why was Grendel angry with the people in the palace?

a) because they didn't invite him

b) because he didn't like music

c) because he wanted to eat their food

d) a and с

2. Why did Grendel take sleeping warriors?

a) because he was afraid of them when not-sleeping

b) because he liked to eat only sleeping people

c) because he didn't want to fight

d) because he didn't want to wake the others

e) a and c

f) b and d

g) all above mentioned reasons

3. Why did Beowulf come to Denmark?

a) because he liked to fight

b) because he wanted to become famous

c) because he wanted to help people

d) because he didn't like monsters

e) a and b

f) b and c

g) all above mentioned reasons

Answer the following questions.

 1.  Did Beowulf kill Grendel in his first battle?

 2. Why did he hang Grendel's arm in the hall?

 3. Was Grendel's mother right when she came to the palace and killed people?

 4. What was Beowulf’s philosophy of life? Do you agree?

 5. Was Beowulf right when he wanted to take the treasure which didn't belong to him?

 6. Did heroes always die? Why don't we have "a happy end" here?                        

 7. Beowulf had three battles. Is number "3" a magic one? Where can we find it? Do you remember other (maybe Russian) tales or legends in which there is number "З"?

 8. Was Beowulf really strong or did some magic help him? Could he win without magic?

 9. Beowulf was a real warrior, wasn't he? Can you prove that?

Put the sentences in the right order according to the text.

Find in the text and say who:

1. gave the dragon the death blow with his war-knife.

2. found an old treasure.

3. were afraid and went away.

4. put its terrible teeth into Beowulf’s neck.

5. cried over the passing of Beowulf.

6.        attacked the dragon with his sword.

7.        fired more.

8.        ran away into the darkness.

9.        built a wonderful palace for his guests and warriors.

10.        killed Aeschere.

Lesson 3

British Fairy Tales

Do you believe in fairies? We hope you do. And we would like to tell you some stories about fairies and other magic creatures, which existed many, many years ago.

Fairies came from Italy. There they were known as Fatae. When Roman civilization went to other countries the Fatae were brought there, too. In France, the name was changed to "fue". In Britain it was Anglicized as "fays". Country people changed it to "fairy".

The original fairies, or faeries, gave newborn children beauty, wealth and kindness. Later, they continued this function, but started to take part in humans' life and change it.

Only animals can see fairies clearly, but sometimes humans are lucky too. Fairies can be seen when they use their power (known as glamour) to make a human see them. During a full moon on Midsummer Eve a human can see fairy dances or celebrations. If a human looks through a self-bored stone (a stone with hole made by waters of a river; not found on a beach) he can see fairies too.

The rulers of the fairies are Queen Titania and her husband Prince Oberon. They lived and ruled in the area of Stratford-upon-Avon.

There are other synonyms for fairies: the Little People, the Green Men, the Good Folk and the Lordly Ones.

Long, long ago people lived surrounded1 by myths. Everything they did was connected with their belief in the powers of good and evil2. Every hill had a name, every river and lake had its spirit3. The forests were full of gods and goddesses.

What is a fairy tale?

The word itself only came into use in the eighteenth century, from France.

A tale is a narrative of real or imaginary events, a story.

A fairy tale is a story (for children) with fantastic forces and beings (as fairies, wizards, and goblins), called also a fairy story.

Many fairy stories have a theme: the main character has problems with his/her family, or is in some way separated from them. The situation becomes worse during the story. The character faces many difficulties, often with a supernatural or fantasy element. But in the end the difficulties are overcome and the story ends happily.

___________

1 to surround — окружать

2 good and evil — добро и зло

3 spirit — дух

The main character is usually young.

However, for all the characters there are limits. The evil characters are usually stupid. The good characters are kind but not all-powerful, they can only give some advice or help. Evil can be overcome, but with some supernatural help.

Fairy tales take place in some past period, but it is never described in any detail, just time when wonders could happen. It has become a cliche1 to start stories:

"Once upon a time..." (or some variation of that)2. It helps to set the story in the time and place when and where the unbelievable could be believed.

The tales can be classified according to their characters, filings and events.

Look at the table, try to remember Russian tales and classify them.

British fairy tales consist of Irish, Welsh, Scottish and English tales, because every country has its own past and traditions.

________

1 a cliché — a stereotype phrase

2Compare to Russian: давным-давно или в некотором царстве, в некотором государстве

Scottish Fairy Tales

Most Scottish fairies look like miniature humans, although there are some who can appear as small animals.

Green is the fairy colour, and humans who wear it risk having the anger of the fairies. Many of the gentlemen fairies wear red caps. Fairies on the Isle of Man were young girls with fish-like hands and in blue dresses.

The Gunna, a Highland fairy boy, wore fox skins. The Ghillie Dhu was dressed in leaves and they wore green moss. The Brown Man of the Muirs wore bracken1. It isn't very

_______

1 bracken — папоротник

much like the Disney version of fairies, is it?

They dance and sing, lend and borrow, and they make cloth and shoes in a short space of time. They make their raids upon the country, and carry off women and children.

Scotland has also its water-spirit, called Kelpie.

The best-known Scottish fairy is the Banshee. This word is a Gaelic one which means "a fairy woman". She could be seen near the rivers. She washed the bloody clothes of those about to die. If anyone who sees her before she sees him gets between her and the water, she may grant him three wishes. She will answer three questions but she asks three questions that must be answered truly. It is said that the Banshee are the ghosts of women died in childbirth.

The Nis, Kobold, or Goblin, appeared in Scotland under the name of Brownie. Brownie is a small creature covered with short curly brown hair. He lived in the old trees, ruined castles or houses. He lived in families for centuries. He planted the corn, cleaned the house, and did everything housewives usually do.

Welsh Fairy Tales

The modem Welsh name for fairies is Tylwyth Teg, the fair folk or family.

The Tylwyth Teg lives in lakes or streams or in the hills. The females are called у татаи (the mothers), title which links them to the pagan Celtic deities, the Matres. They are especially interested in children with golden hair.

The fairies of Wales may be divided into five classes:

1. The Ellyllon, or elves

2. The Coblynau, or fairies

3. The Bwbachod, or household fairies

4. The Gwragedd Annwn, or fairies of the lakes and streams

5. The Gwyllion, or mountain fairies

        Irish FairyTales

Lugh. Brigit. Conare. Chulaind. The Tuatha de Danaan. These names are the most famous in the Irish tales.

The tales are a good mix of romance and adventure, joy and sorrow. The more known are "The Wooing of Etain", "The Boyhood Deeds of Cu Chulaind", "The Wasting Sickness of Cu Chulaind", and "The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel".

Irish tales are different from other tales:

1. Names and places are real. We are told who the characters are, what their life was, and where they lived and acted.

2. The heroes and their actions are shown as if they were persons of today or yesterday.

3. The usual formula is, "Where there was or where there was not, there was in the world."

Even Russian tales are less definite than Celtic. "In a certain state in a certain kingdom there was, or there lived, a man." It is a usual formula for all Europe. The place and the actor are unknown. If he goes anywhere, he simply travels across forty-nine kingdoms or beyond thrice nine lands1.

But in the Irish tales the hero is always a well-known person in a known place.

__________

1 beyond thrice nine lands — в тридевятом царстве

English Fairy Tales

Nesbit

What do you think reading or hearing this rhyme? Cinderella, Little Red Riding Hood, the Big Bad Wolf and the Frog Prince.

English in origin, these tales have connection to other traditions, "The Little Red Riding Hood" and "The Three Bears", for example can be met in Russian, French and some other countries' tales.

"Lazy Jack", "Jack the Giant-Killer", "Jack and the Beanstalk", and "How Jack Went Out to Seek His Fortune" is a variation on "The Brementown Musicians".

The English tale "The Three Little Pigs" is different from other versions: the third pig tricks the wolf, he turns the tables and eats the wolf for dinner!

There are more than three variations on Cinderella: "Tattercoats", "Catskin", and "Caporushes".

There is also a variant of "Rumpelstiltskin", called "Tom Tit Tot".

But there are unique tales, such as "Nix Naught Nothing", "The Golden Snuff Box", "Childe Rowland", "The Wee Bannock", "The Laidly Worm", "The Babes in the Woods" and "The Rose Tree".

►Discuss the Lesson

1. Do you like tales? Why?

2. Have you ever read British fairy tales before (in Russian or in English)?

3. Who is usually the main character in a tale?

4. What is the difference between the tales? Does every nation have its own tales? Why?

5. What fairies do you know? Are there fairies in Russian tales?

6. Who are the main characters in the tales?

a) Irish

b) Welsh

c) Scottish

d) English        

Lesson 4

English Ballads

The Adventures of Robin Hood

The ballads of Robin Hood have a rich history. Ballads were the first way of stories about the man named Robin Hood. They were told among the people of England. This tradition of passing on stories or history was the best because the minstrel1 could sing in different places to different people. The lyrics of the ballads changed to show the type of people and their interests, and the story grew and changed.

There are many differences as to the birth and life of Robin Hood in the ballads. One manuscript says that he was born in 1160. The other dates his birth from 1225; yet another manuscript states that he was born between 1285 and 1295.

Ballads mention that Robin Hood was born in Locksly Town, Nottinghamshire, but there is no town named so.

_____________

1 a minstrel — a medieval singer or musician

One manuscript says he was born in Lockesley, Nottinghamshire. There is a Loxley, Staffordshire, near Needwood Forest. Robin Hood was the son of William Fitzooth who had land in Loxley, and this is where the birthplace came from.

In the ballads, the man who is Robin Hood loves nature and freedom, he is green (a forest figure), he has merry time with his men, and he is natural. He fights against evil, but he does not have a problem with the king. He is simply against those people who were unjustl. Robin becomes the hero of the people for fighting this injustice. Robbing the rich and giving to the poor was his way of bringing the common people on his side.

Robin uses a long bow2 as his weapon. It was important to be good at the bow and arrow in the 13th and 14th centuries because it was the means of hunting and the means of protection. Because Robin became a mythical legend, he was the best archer3.

The death of Robin Hood took place at Kirklees Castle, or Priory, in Yorkshire, where Robin's cousin was the Prioress. She made Robin bleed4 to death. Little John, Robin's best friend, was near Robin up to his death. Just before his death, Robin shot his last arrow out the window and told Little John to bury him where the arrow fell.

Another story is that a monk5 who came to help Robin actually killed him. The monk was Roger of Doncaster (according to the Sloane MS6), who wanted to revenge on Robin. In this MS, the Prioress buried him in an unmarked grave near the road by a place called the Three Nuns Inn. Legend says he was 87 years old!

This version of the story says that before Robin died, he shot two arrows out the window. The first landed in the River Calder. The second landed in the lawn by the house, and his grave is thought to be there today. Near that grave there are two others, one of a child and one of Elizabeth Stainton, who was his aunt. In any case, the bones of Robin are said to rest in that place.

The Historical Background

There are many names of Kings and Queens in the stories about Robin Hood. We would like you to remember some of them as they played an important part in the history of Britain and help us to understand the historical situation in the ballads.

William the Conqueror (1027-1087)

William appears in the Robin Hood legend not very often because the stories of Robin Hood take place 100 years after this king's rule. But William's influence is felt in most Robin Hood stories.

In 1066, William came to England from Normandy. Normandy was a part of France given over to the Vikings in the 10th century. Over the years, the Normans adopted the French language and customs. They had a lot of land. The Norman lands were much larger than those of the king of France. But for all their lands, the Duke of Normandy, William, was still a vassal to the French king. The dukes wanted to be kings as well.              

The English were tired and weak after the fights with the Vikings and lost the battle. On Christmas Day, 1066, William became the king of England. He reformed England, building mighty castles. In most stories Robin was fighting against the Normans.

__________

1 unjust — несправедливый

2 a bow — лук

3 an archer — a person who uses a bow and arrows

4 to bleed (bled, bled) — истекать кровью

5 a monk — монах

6 MS = manuscript

Henry П (1154-1189)

Henry Fitz-Empress was the son of Matilda (or Maud), daughter of Henry I and widow of the Holy Roman Emperor, and Geoffrey Plantagenet1, Count2 of Anjou3.

Henry became king in 1154. With the lands of Normandy, Anjou, England, and Aquitaine, which he got from his wife, Henry was a very powerful monarch. Compared to the life of his parents, Henry's life was peaceful. Until his children grew up.

Henry had four sons (he also had daughters, some sons died as children): Henry the Young Prince, Richard, Geoffrey and John. In 1170, Henry's son, Henry, was crowned king of England. Unfortunately, the young king soon plotted4 against his father with the help of Richard, Geoffrey, and Henry II’s wife Queen Eleanor.

The young king died in 1183, and Geoffrey died in 1186. Still the plotting continued. In 1188 and 1189, Richard, the Count of Poitou, joined with King Philip II of France against Henry II. Henry II died on July 6, 1189. He died with a broken heart, for one day before his death. Henry learned that his favourite son John had been on Richard's side.

The manuscript of 1600 said Robin Hood was born in 1160, during Henry II's reign. And some stories are set in the time of Henry II. But we can meet Henry's wife and sons in the legend of Robin Hood more often.

Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204)

Do you know that "behind every good man, there is a great woman"? These words are about Queen Eleanor. She was the queen of two kingdoms, and the mother of two more kings.

Eleanor had lands larger than the king of France. She married king Louis VII of France in 1137. As queen of France, she went with Louis on the Second Crusade5. There, Eleanor, dressed as an Amazon6, shocked the men of the time.

In 1152, she married Henry, the Duke of Normandy, who was 11 years younger than Eleanor. Two years later, Eleanor had become queen of England.

In the 1170s, with her sons she plotted against Henry II. In 1173, she was caught and put in prison for most of the rest of Henry's reign. She was freed right after Richard became king. Richard was her favourite son. Her grandson Arthur of Brittany put Eleanor in prison in 1202. King John freed her. She died in 1204 at the age of 82.

Eleanor was a great patroness7 of arts and architecture. And in some stories she was a patroness of Robin Hood. Sometimes Robin Hood is said to have shot for her at an archery competition. The original ballad makes the queen "Catherine". In some stories Eleanor is madly in love with Robin Hood.

Richard I the Lionheart (1189-1199)

Richard wasn't the king in the earliest Robin Hood ballads, he is the one most closely connected to Robin Hood.

_____________

1 The Plantagenets— the family name of the line of English kings from Henry II to Richard III (1154-1485)

2 Count— a nobleman on the continent of Europe, equal in rank to an English earl                      

3 Anjou — a historical region and former province of Northwest France in the Loire river valley. Ruled by the powerful counts of Anjou in the early Middle Ages, it was annexed to the French crown lands by Louis XI in the 1480s.

4 to plot — участвовать в заговоре            

5Crusade — any of the military expeditions undertaken by European Christians in the llth, 12th, and 13th centuries to take the Holy Land from the Muslims (members of the Nation of Islam)

6 Amazon — one of a fabulous race of female warriors in Scythia, a strong woman warrior

7 a patroness — покровительница

Richard was crowned king in 1189. Almost immediately, he left England to go on the Third Crusade. Some Robin Hood stories say Robin Hood was with Richard on this Crusade.

While on the Third Crusade, King Richard deeply offended1 Duke Leopold of Austria. In December of 1192, he made his way home through the lands of the duke and was taken and put into prison. The emperor ransomed2 Richard for 150,000 marks. The money was gathered from the English people.

Robin Hood robbed the rich in order to pay Richard's ransom. Robin helped to pay Richard's ransom in many stories and Richard was let go.

Richard landed in Britain in late March 1194. While he was gone, his brother Count John conspired with the king of France. Count John was hoping to take power for himself. When Richard returned, John left England. Most of John's helpers quickly came to Richard's side. Except those in Nottinghamshire.

Ranulf, the Earl of Chester, and his brother-in-law, the Earl of Huntingdon (David in real history, Robin Hood in legend) led an attack on Nottingham. King Richard joined them and took Nottingham Castle in two days. And the next day Richard went hunting in Sherwood Forest.

Many, many Robin Hood stories have Robin helping Richard at Nottingham.

Afterwards, Richard went to take back the possessions lost to Philip of France. He did not return to England, and had only spent some months in the country during his reign. Richard was killed by an arrow at Chaluz in 1199.

In legend Richard was a great king. He was a poet and a musician. He was a brave fighter and because of his bravery he had his nickname "the Lionheart".

John I (1199-1216)

John was a troublemaker in many later Robin Hood stories.

John was the youngest of Henry II's sons, and when Henry divided his land amongst his children, John was given less than the others. So John got the nickname "Lackland".

John died at Newark in Nottinghamshire. He was on his way to his favourite hunting place, Clipstone in Sherwood Forest.

Henry III (1216-1272)

Henry, a nine-year old son of King John, became king in 1216. So, England was more or less ruled by his advisors. When Henry grew up he had troubles with the barons just like his father did.

Simon de Montfort was the Earl of Leicester and married Henry's sister. In 1258, Montfort led barons against the king.

In a few Robin Hood stories Montfort helped to push the way for Parliamentary democracy.

During Montfort's rebellion, the barons put into prison Peter of Aigueblanche, the bishop of Hereford. This bishop may have been the corrupt bishop in the Robin Hood ballad.

Also, there was a real Robin Hood early in Henry's reign, Robert (Hobbehod) Hod of Yorkshire.

Edward I (1272-1307)

The early Robin Hood ballad "A Gest of Robyn Hode" states the king's name is Edward. Henry Ill's son is the king of that ballad.

________

1 to offend — обижать

2 to ransom — to give money for freedom

This king had nicknames for practically every side of his personality. Edward was tall and nicknamed "Long-shanks". He was religious, but also tricky and was called "the Leopard". He was strong and fought both Scotland and Wales and was called "the Hammer of the Scots".

According to the Scottish popular legend, William Wallace was a great hero. Many of his legendary deeds are very much like Robin Hood's ones. It is said that the Robin Hood ballads may have been taken from the Wallace stories.

Wallace beat Edward I's army in 1297, but lost the battle the next year. In 1305, the English finally caught him. He was hung, drawn and quartered.

"The Hammer of the Scots", Edward, was sometimes mentioned in Robin Hood ballads. In one Elizabethan play about the king, some of the characters put on the clothes of Robin Hood and his company. But his main contribution to the legend of Robin Hood was the conflict with William Wallace.

Edward II (1307-1327)

Edward II is known as a poor military leader, a bad ruler. But he's probably best known for being gay. So, how does he relate to Robin Hood?

Edward II was a good hunter, and hunted in Sherwood. He was also a traveller, visiting over 4,000 places in England, Nottingham among them.

For these reasons, Edward II was shown as the Edward of the early Robin Hood ballad.

      In 1326, Edward's wife Isabella the She- Wolf of France, and her lover Roger Mortimer fought England. Edward was arrested, put in prison, and killed in 1327.

Edward Ш (1327-1377)

The setting of the early Robin Hood ballads most closely resembles Edward III's time. Edward III was called a comely king in a 1339 poem, and Edward of the Gest is also called "our comly kynge".

Henry VIII (1509-1547) and Catherine of Aragon

The Robin Hood stories had been told long before Henry and Catherine were born. That didn't stop writers from putting them into the legend. Catherine, Henry's first wife, was most likely the title character in the ballad Robin Hood and Queen Catherine. In the ballad, the queen invites Robin Hood to shoot for her in an archery competition. Henry was fighting Robin all over England.

But even in history. Henry and Catherine were connected with Robin Hood. In 1510, Henry VIII and 11 nobles came into the queen's room. They were in Robin Hood and his men's clothes. In 1516, Henry and Catherine came to a Robin Hood parade. They watched an archery competition.

Henry's best known for his divorce from Catherine, and the things that happened to his next five wives. He also broke the English church away from Rome. And everyone can tell by his portrait that Henry VIII ate a lot.

But when he was young, Henry was very active and a champion archer. He often won competitions. And he ordered all men from 16 to 60 must know how to use a bow.

At the end of his reign and afterwards, England became Protestant. Robin Hood became a Protestant in the later legends, too.

        Style

The popular ballad (folk ballad) is a story told in song, usually by an impersonal narrator1 and in a special form. Ballads use phrases and repeated words to help the singer's memory.

__________

1a narrator — a person who is telling the story

Ballads are usually written using alternating four- and three-stress lines, usually rhyming on the second and fourth lines. A literary ballad is a learned imitation of the traditional form.

• A line is a horizontal row of printed or written words or symbols.

• Rhyme — words rhyme when their last syllables have the same sound. Two words rhyme if their last stressed vowels and the sounds that follow them are the same (as in "afar" and "bizarre", "biology" and "ideology", or "computer" and "commuter").

• End-rhymes are words at the end of each line which rhyme with each other:

The cow is of the bovine ilk;

  One end is moo, the other milk.

                               Ogden Nash

• Internal rhymes are rhyming words at the beginning of a line:

The sails at noon left off their tune

Coleridge, "The Rime

of the Ancient Mariner", 1797

There is a masculine rhyme, in which only one syllable rhymes ("loud" and "proud"), and a feminine rhyme, in which the rhyme goes over more than one syllable, both stressed and unstressed ("cooking" and "looking"),

A perfect rhyme is one in which the two sounds correspond exactly ("by hook or by crook").

In a partial rhyme the sounds are similar but not identical:

      Then say not Man's imperfect, Heaven in fault;

Say rather, Man's as perfect as he ought...

"An Essay on Man” by Alexander Pope

Read some extracts from the ballads about Robin Hood and mark the rhyme. Which lines rhyme?

a) This is one of the earliest texts:

In somer, when the shawes be sheyne,

And leves be large and long,

Hit is full mery in feyre foreste

To here the foulys song,

To se the dere draw to the dale,

And leve the hilles hee,

And shadow hem in the leves grene,

Under the grene wode tre.

Hit befel on Whitson

Eriy in a May mornyng,

The son up feyre can shyne,

And the briddis mery can syng.

"This is a mery momyng," seid Litull John,

"Be Hym that dyed on tre;

A more mery man then I am one

Lyves not in Cristiante.

"Pluk up thi hert, my dere mayster,"

 Litull John can sey,

"And thynk hit is a mil fayre tyme

In a momyng of May."

“Ye, on thyng greves me," seid Robyn,

"And does my hert mych woo:

That I may not no solem day

To mas nor matyns goo.

b) This is another, later text:

Draw near and listen, gentles all,

That be of freeborn blood;

I shall tell you of a good yeoman —

His name was Robin Hood.

Robin was a proud outlaw

As long as he walked the ground;

Such a courteous outlaw as he once was

Could never since be found.

Robin stood in Bairnsdale

And leaned against a tree;

And by him stood Little John:

A good yeoman was he.

And so also did good Scarlok,

And Much the Miller's son;

Every inch of his body

Was worthy of a man.

Then up spoke Little John

All unto Robin Hood:

"Master, if you would dine at once

It would do you so much good."

Then replied to him good Robin:

"To dine I have no wish,

                  Until I've spied some bold baron,

Or else some strange new quest."

(Fetch me an abbot)

That may pay for the best,

Or some knight or some squire

That dwells out here in the west.

A good custom then had Robin:

In the land where e'er he were,

Every day ere he would dine,

Three masses would he hear.

Can you find rhyme in this text (1475)?

Syr sheryffe for thy sake

Robyn hode wull у take.

I wyll the gyffe golde and fee

This be heste p holde me.

Robyn hode ffayre and fre

vndre this lynde shote we.

with the shote у wyll

Alle thy lustes to full fyll.

Have at the pryke.

And у cleue the styke.

late vs caste the stone

     I grunte well be seynt lohn.

     late vs caste the exaltre

                 have a foote be fore the.

                 syr knyght ye haue a falle.

And I. the Robyn qwyte shall

Owte on the I blowe myn horne.

hit ware better be vn borne.

lat vs fyght at ottraunce

he that fleth god gyfe hym myschaunce.

Now I haue the maystry here

off I smyte this sory swyre

This knyghtys clothis wolle I were

And in my hode his hede woll bere.

welle mete felowe myn

What herst pu of gode Robyn

Robin hode and his menye

wt the sheryffe takyn be.

sette on foote wt gode wyll

And the sheryffe wull we kyll

Be holde wele ffrere tuke

howe he dothe his bowe pluke

3eld yow syrs to the sheryffe.

Or elles shall yo bowes clyffe.

Now we be bownden alle in same

ffrere Tuke pis is no game.

Come bu forth pu fals outlawe.

pu shall [be] hangyde and у drawe.

Now allas what shall we doo

we [m] oste to the prysone goo

Opyn the yatis faste anon

And late theis thevys ynne gon.

Read the retelling of a part from the legend made by Henry Gilbert (1912)  

Now it was told before how two hundred pounds were set upon Robin Hood's head, and how the Sheriff of Nottingham swore that he himself would seize Robin, both because he would fain have the two hundred pounds and because the slain man was a kinsman of his own. Now the Sheriff did no yet know what a force Robin had about him in Sherwood, but thought that he might serve a warrant for his arrest as he could upon any other man that had broken the laws; therefore he offered fourscore golden angels to anyone who would serve this warrant. But men of Nottingham Town knew more Robin Hood and his doings than the Sheriff did, and many laughed to think of serving a warrant upon the bold outlaw knowing well that all they would get for such service would be cracked crowns; so that no one came forward to take the mat in hand. Thus a fortnight passed, in which time none came forward to do the Sheriff's business. Then said he, "A right good reward have I offered to whosoever would serve warrant upon Robin Hood, and I marvel that no one come to undertake the task."

Is it difficult to read? Why? (unknown words, very long sent unusual grammar)

Can you retell it to your friends?

Read more retellings of the ballads about Robin Hood.

►Discuss the Lesson

1. What is the difference between a fairy tale and a legend?

2. Why do you think real people, place names and events are mentioned in legends?

3. Have you read stories about Robin Hood before?

4. Do you think Robin Hood is:

     a) kind and honest

     b) clever but not kind

c) brave and clever

d) a and с

e) none

5. What is the rhyme pattern in the ballad?

A) AABB

B) ABAB

c) ABBA

d) a and b

e) a, b and с

Prove your choice, giving examples from the texts.

Lesson 5

The Middle Ages

Edward III's eldest son was nicknamed "the Black Prince". Edward III and the Black Prince were greatly loved in England for their courage and for their manners. They became symbols of the code of chivalry1.

During the reign of Edward interest grew in the legendary King Arthur. Arthur, if he ever existed, was a Celtic ruler. He fought the Anglo-Saxons, but we know nothing more about him. The 14th century legend created around Arthur included both the imagined magic and mystery of the Celts and the knightly code of the court of Edward III.

According to the code of chivalry, the perfect knight fought for his good name, served God and the king, and defended any lady in need. The same ideas are expressed in the legend of the Round Table.

Edward introduced the idea of chivalry into his court. One day a lady at court dropped her garter2. Edward saw that some of his knights were laughing at her. He picked up the garter and tied it to his own leg. He said in French: "Let him be ashamed who sees wrong in it." From this strange but true story, the Order of the Garter3 was founded in 1348.

Edward chose as members of the order twenty-four knights. It is the same number the legendary Arthur had chosen. They met once a year on St George's Day at Windsor Castle. King Arthur's Round Table is thought to be situated there too.

The Historical Background

Legendary King Arthur

King Arthur is a product of legend and literature, made up by many authors, beginning after the late 5th and early 6th centuries, the time when he is thought to have lived. The last novel was Sir Thomas Malory's "Le Morte d'Arthur" (first written in French) in 1485. The thousand-year works of medieval Arthurian literature enriches the reading of works like "Morte d'Arthur" and "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight". It also gives idea of connection between history and literature. Few historical facts left writers of history and romance free to show facts and people as they saw.

____________

1 rode of chivalry — рыцарский закон

2 a garter — подвязка

 3 the Order of the Garter — Орден Подвязки.

The man who inspired1 the Arthurian legends was a Briton, a leader of the Celtic people. He was a part of the Roman Empire2 and was Christianized3 because it became the official religion of Rome. At the time, the Britons were fighting against the Anglo-Saxons. They occupied the southeastern part of Britain. The Roman Empire was busy fighting Germanic tribes, and by the late 5th century the Britons were cut off from Rome.

We know that the Britons won some battles, especially at a place called Mount Badon. They were led by a commander or commanders, one of whom was called Arthur (from the Roman "Artorius"). Arthur was not a king.

In the Welsh poem Gododdin, composed around 600, a hero gave the bodies of his enemies to ravens. Though he was not Arthur, the poet said he knew of an even greater hero by that name.

"A Latin history of the Britons" around the year 800, by Nennius4, tells that "Arthur fought against the Saxons in those days together with the kings of Britain, and he himself was the leader of battles." Nennius names twelve of these battles, in one of which Arthur carried a picture of the Virgin Mary on his shoulders.

"The Latin Annals of Wales" described the Battle of Badon, in which "Arthur carried the Cross of our Lord Jesus Christ on his shoulders for three days and three nights, and the Britons won."

At the same time, Arthur was already known in Welsh legends as a fairy-tale king, followed by people named Kei (Kay), Bedwyn (Bedivere), and Gwalchmain (Gawain).

In the French literature of the 12th and 13th centuries Arthur and his knights came as an aristocratic ideal of chivalry. In the romances of Chretien de Troyes, the "history" of Arthur was the history of his knights.

French art, architecture, and literature became the international culture of the high Middle Ages. Chrйtien's works were adapted and imitated by writers in German, English and Icelandic. In the 13th century, French writers created many romances5 in prose. These were the "French books" that in the 15th century Sir Thomas Malory translated into what became the classic version in English, "Le Morte d'Arthur".

From their beginnings the legends of Arthur and his knights rose national and class feelings. There is a Welsh myth that Arthur was not dead and would return to save his people.                                        

In the 14th century, after the beginning of the Hundred Years War, Edward III planned to make a new Round Table. For the knightly class, Arthurian chivalry was the model of a code of honour.                        

The English took the legendary king of the Celtic! Britons as the national hero.

King Arthur is the figure at the heart of the Arthurian legends. He is said to be the son of Uther Pendragon and Igraine of Cornwall. Arthur is a mythic figure in Celtic stories, such as Culhwch and Olwen. In early Latin chronicles he is a military leader, the dux bellorum (Latin).In later romance he is a king and emperor.          

The stories about King Arthur were written in the form of a poem in the old English language and then retold. But there are some translations into modem English.

_________

1 to inspire — вдохновлять

2 the Roman Empire — Римская Империя. It was established by Augustus in 27 ВС and divided by Theodosius in 395 AD.

3 to Christianize — to make Christian

4 Nennius — a ninth century Welsh monk/historian of Bangor, is a main source for tales of King Arthur

5 a romance — a long medieval narrative in prose or verse that tells of the adventures and heroic deeds of chivalric heroes

Here is an extract from "Le Morte d'Arthur" by Syr Thomas Malory; the original edition of William Caxton.

Thenne they auysed the kynge to send for the duke and his wyf  by a grete charge / And yf he wille not come at your somōs / thenne may ye do your best / thenne haue ye cause to make myghty werre vpon hym / Soo that was done and the messagers hadde their ansuers / And that was thys shortly / that neyther he nor his wyf wold not come at hym / Thenne was the kyng wonderly wroth / And thenne the kyng sente hym playne word ageyne / and badde hym be redy and stuffe hym and garnysshe hym / for within xl dayes he wold fetche hym oute of the byggest castell that he hath /

Is it easy to read and understand?

The following translation by Blaikie, J. Arthur, "Arthur in Avalon" (1884), is easier to understand, isn't it?

Read the text and find the words which you can translate into modern English.

Stricken of man, and sore beset of Fate,

He lies amid the groves of Avalon;

What comfort mete ye unto Uther's son,

O mournful Queens? What styptic to abate

Life's eager stream? Alas, not theirs to sate

His soul with earthly vision! he hath done

With mortal life, and chivalry's bright sun

Is darkened by the powers of hell and hate.

Lo! now, the garden of his agony

          Is very sweet, though dread the hour, and drear

With utterless spell of horrid potency;

The barred east beyond the brightening sea,

Thick with portentous wraiths of phantom fear,

Is flushed with triumph, stirred with melody.

Nowadays the stories about Arthur are still popular. There are many film and cartoon versions of them. The most famous are "The First Knight" with Sean O'Connery, Julia Ormond, Richard Gere; "The Sword in the Stone", a Disney classic; "Camelot" with Richard Hams and Vanessa Redgrave; "Quest for Camelot", a Warner Brothers classic, and others.

► Discuss the Lesson

1. Look at one of the translations and mark the rhyme pattern. What is it?

a) ABAB

b) AABB

c) ВАВА

d) ABBA

2. Do you think King Arthur really existed?

3. Why do you think a person like King Arthur should born in that time?

4. Why does the person of King Arthur still attract people?

►Discuss Chapter One

A

1. What is the difference between a tale and a myth?

2. What epics do you know?

3. Can you read any text in Old English? Why?

4. What is the difference between Old and Modem English? Give examples.

5. What is easier to read: a translation or a retelling? What is the difference?

6. Who is a narrator?

7. What types of rhyme can you name?

8. Are there romances in modem literature? Analyze this genre and give examples.

9. What is the difference between a romance and a ballad?

10. Can you find a genre in the Russian folklore analogous to the Celtic myth?

B

1. Do you think the Romans were not only invaders, but the "teachers of the Celts" as well? Can you prove this?

2. Why were the characters in the Irish, Scottish, Welsh and English tales different?

3. What characters and themes can be found in the tales of different countries? Give examples.

4. What British kings and queens are most famous? Why?

5. Have you ever heard about Crusades? What countries took part in them? How did they finish? What was the result?

Chapter Two

The Renaissance

The word Renaissance comes from the Latin word Rinascere which means to be reborn (born again). During the Renaissance (early 1300s to 1600), European writers tried to use the life and spirit of ancient Greek and Roman culture in their own literary, artistic, and philosophic works. The Renaissance is different from the Medieval period. In Medieval times, people thought about saving their souls. During the Renaissance period they thought about society and what they can do to help it.        

During the Middle Ages people studied theology (the study of God). The people of the Renaissance studied humanity, looking at the great ancient civilizations.    

Artists in the Renaissance looked at the beauty of the human body and painted lifesize portraits of people. In the Medieval Ages, paintings of people were not allowed.

About 1450, people in Europe became more interested in studying the world around them. Their art became more true to life. They began to explore new lands.

The Renaissance is thought to be the beginning of modem history.

The Renaissance began in Northern Italy and then spread through Europe.

The Renaissance influenced painting, sculpture, literature and architecture. Paintings became more realistic and not only on religious topics.

In Britain, there was a flowering in literature and drama that included the plays of William Shakespeare.

Lesson 6

William Shakespeare

(1564-1616)

All the-world's a stage,

And all the men and women merely

players;

                                                           They have their exits and their

entrances,

                                                           And one man in his time plays many

parts.

                                                            from "As You Like It", 2.7. 139-167

                                                           by W. Shakespeare

He was called the Bard of Avon (as he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon1). He is still famous more than four hundred years after his birth. He is the synonym of poetry. He enriched the literary world with his works. He is certainly the world's most read author. He is the most performed dramatist. All these words are said about William Shakespeare.

Let us have a look at his life.

Shakespeare was born in 1564. But little was known about him until the age of 18. He was educated at Stratford Grammar School. He had a big family. William Shakespeare was the third of eight children. His father was John Shakespeare, a glover. His mother, Mary, was the daughter of Robert Arden, a rich gentleman — a farmer.

The first time he saw a play was when he was 4. He didn't understand the words but loved the sound of them and loved the costumes. Later Will had to walk many miles to watch plays that travelling actors put on.

He also loved watching his father make gloves. That was one of his jobs later on. His first jobs were a butcher a law clerk, a schoolmaster, and a gardener. He helped his father as a glove-maker.

The Shakespeares lived in Henley Street in Stratford- upon-Avon.

At the age of 18, Will married Anne Hathaway. He had one girl named Suzanna who was born May 26, 1583. After that he had twins, a boy and a girl. Their names were Hamnet and Judith.

We know nothing about when Shakespeare move from Stratford to London. In 1594 he worked at a theater company. It later became the Royal Company. Shakespeare became a playwright. He was a playwright and an actor.

He spent most of his time with other actors. He earned most of his money on plays. Some people were jealous2 of Shakespeare because he could both write and act.

Shakespeare died in 1616 on the day of his birthday which was April 23, at Stratford-upon-Avon. He died when he was 52. The cause of his death was unknown.

____________

1 Avon— a river in South-Central England flowing 154.5 km to the Severn

2 to be jealous — завидовать

He was buried at the Holy Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon.

Shakespeare didn't leave much to his family. He gave money to colleagues and the poor. He left his youngest daughter, Judith, a silver cup. He gave a sword to a friend. He gave Joan, his sister, all his clothes. To his granddaughter he gave his silverware1. The strangest part of his will was to his wife. He left her his "second-best bed." To Susanna, his oldest daughter, and John, her husband, he left the best bed and New Place. New Place was the second-largest house in his town. It was a house with three floors, two gardens, and ten fireplaces.

He left his properties2 to some man who died about fifty years later. Then, all his properties were sold to strangers. Nothing was left in the family.

Shakespeare was a poet as well. He wrote 154 sonnets.

Lesson 7

Sonnets

Characteristics of a Sonnet

Before giving a definition of a sonnet, we'd like you to understand other literary terms.

A stanza is one of the divisions of a poem, composed of two or more lines usually characterized by a common pattern of meter, rhyme, and number of lines.

An octave is the first two stanzas of a sonnet, consisting of four verses each; a stanza of eight lines.

A sestet is a group of six lines of poetry, especially the last six lines of a sonnet.

A rhythm is a pattern of development produced in a literary or dramatic work by repetition of elements such as words, phrases, incidents, themes, images, and symbols.

An accent is a rhythmically important stress in the articulation of words, giving some syllables more meaning than others. In words of two or more syllables, one syllable is stressed more strongly than the other syllables. In words of one syllable, the degree of stress normally depends on their grammatical function; nouns, verbs, and adjectives are usually given more stress than articles or prepositions. The words in a line of poetry are usually arranged so the accents are put at regular intervals.

A sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines, two stanzas, called the octave. It has four verses each, and two stanzas, called the sestet; or three verses each, that has a certain rhyme and rhythm.

In a sonnet each line has five accents. The octave has but two rhymes, the second, third, sixth, and seventh lines being of one rhyme (BABA); the first, fourth, fifth, and eighth being of another (ABAB). In the sestet there are sometimes two and sometimes three rhymes; but in some way its two stanzas rhyme together. Often the three lines of the first stanza rhyme with the three lines of the second.

In Shakespeare's sonnets, the first twelve lines rhyme alternately3 (ABAB), and the last two rhyme together.

A sonnet is an Italian word meaning "little song". There are different forms of sonnets from around the world, but Shakespeare's has been accepted as the typical English form.

Characters of Shakespeare's Sonnets

 The Young Man

 The Dark Lady

 The Rival Poet

Shakespeare's language is different from Modern English.

_________

1silverware—kitchen spoons, forks, knives made of 2silver property — собственность

3alternately — поочередно

Compare the two versions of the most famous sonnets.

A version is a form or a variant.

Sonnet 66

Sonnet 130

Translate the following words into Modern English.

Name three cases of changes and find other examples in the text.

Read the sonnets again and mark the stanzas, sestets and octaves.

What are the rhyme patterns in the first and the second versions? Are they the same or different? Can you explain why?

Read the translations of the first lines of Sonnet 130. Why do you think there are many translations of one sonnet?

Глаза ее сравнить с небесною звездою

И пурпур нежных уст с кораллом — не дерзну

                                                         И. А. Мамуна

Ее глаза на солнце не похожи,

Коралл намного губ ее красней;

С. Степанов

Ее глаза не схожи с солнцем, нет;

         Коралл краснее алых этих губ;

                                   А. М. Финкель

Read the full translation of this sonnet.

Sonnet 130

В ее глазах нет солнца отраженья,

Коралла алый цвет губ милой не коснулся,

И снега кожа милой не белее,

И волосы как проволока вьются.

Она от комплиментов не краснеет,

И нет в ней тонкого цветов благоуханья,

И голоса ее я с пеньем не смещаю,

Хотя и жду его как нищий подаянья.

 Богинею ее назвать не смею,

 И в этом много крат я тех честнее,

 Которые с небесным воплощением

 Любую женщину сравнить умеют.

Люблю ее саму я, без прикрас,

 И оттого она милей во много раз.

Which of the translations of the last lines of Sonnet 66 reflect the idea of the original lines better? Why do you think so? The original lines are:

Tir'dwith all these, from these would I be gone,

Save that, to die, I leave my love alone.

Give your own translation of these lines.

             Я, утомленный, жаждал бы уйти,

             Когда б тебя с собой мог унести!

                                            М. И. Чайковский

       Забвенье, смерть! — ушел бы, не скорбя,

       одно спасает: страх мой за тебя.

       А. Штыпель

Устал я и охотно смерть приму.

Но как тебе тут будет одному?

                                 С. Степанов

Устал я жить и смерть зову скорбя.

Но на кого оставлю я тебя?!

                                            А. М. Финкель

О смерти я молю, устав от бед,

Да у тебя иного друга нет.

                                             В. Зеленков

Our pupils from the 7th form read these sonnets and translated them. We'd like to give some of them here.

Sonnet 57

Being your slave, what should I do but tend

Upon the hours and times of your desire?

I have no precious time at all to spend,

Nor services to do, till you require.

Nor dare I chide the world-without-end hour

Whilst I, my sovereign, watch the clock for you,

Nor think the bitterness of absense sour

When you have bid your servant once adieu;

 Nor dare I question with my jealous thought

 Where you may be, or your affairs suppose,

 But, like a sad slave, stay and think of nought,

 Save, where you are how happy you make those.

 So true a fool is love that in your will,

 Though you do anything, he thinks no ill.

Сонет 57

Я — твой слуга! И что я должен делать?

Часами ждать и думать о тебе?!

Но жизнь мою уже не переделать

И не ищу я счастья в суете.

Желания твои — все для меня закон,

И пусть звучат они как наказанье.

А если ты прогонишь меня вон,

То я уйду, исполнив приказанье!

Но думать о тебе я не устану.

Ты для раба Богиней обернулась.

Как хочешь, смейся или нет,

Но я считать не перестану

Счастливцами всех тех, кому ты улыбнулась!

Любовь слепа, но в глубине души ты знаешь

Что с тем, кого ты любишь, без стыда

Ты можешь сделать все, что пожелаешь!

Юлия Курсакова

Сонет 57

Заботиться, как раб твой, о тебе

И угождать в любое время года!

Нет времени подумать о себе,

Но в настроении твоем опять меняется погода.

Ругаю лишь себя я при прощании,

Ловлю движенье стрелок на часах,

Не смею сожалеть о расставании

И даже вспоминать о тех порах...

Я от тебя не жду ответа

Счастливы те места, где ты была.

Твой лик — кусочек солнечного лета,

Само существованье для меня!

Желай, что хочешь — все исполню для тебя

И в том вина любви, что так слепа!

                                                Богдан Колесник

Give your own translation of any sonnet you like.

Lesson 8 Comedies

Shakespeare didn't earn a lot of money writing sonnets. He wrote them during the times when the theatres were closed because of the plague1.

Shakespeare's work can be divided into four main periods.

The first period, 1590—1594, includes historical plays and the early farces — "The Comedy of Errors" and "The Taming of the Shrew"; the early romantic comedies — "The Two Gentlemen of Verona" and "Love's Labour Lost."

The second period, 1595-1600, includes historical plays, the great comedies, and "The Merry Wives of Windsor."

The third period, 1600-1608, is the period of Shakespeare's great tragedies, and his three unusual "problem plays," of which "All's Well That Ends Well" is an example. Even in comedy, Shakespeare shows the darker aspects of the human spirit, and it is only because "All's Well" and "Measure for Measure" end happily that they are called "comedies."

The final period, 1609-1613, is different in tone. This is the time when Shakespeare wrote his dramatic romances, like "The Winter's Tale."                            

He moved away from his earlier methods and created a new, symbolic kind of drama.                    

A drama is a composition, in prose or poetry, showing the picture of human life, or a series of grave or humorous actions of more than ordinary interest. It is usually written to be spoken and represented by actors on the stage.

The principal species of the drama are tragedy and comedy; other species are tragi-comedy, melodrama, opera, burletta, and farce.

Shakespeare's dramas were romantic.

A romantic drama (sentimental, fanciful, fantastic fictitious, extravagant, wild, chimerical) is the kind of drama whose aim is to present a tale or history in scenes and whose plays are stories told in dialogue by actors on the stage.

___________

plague — the black death— чума

A comedy is a dramatic work that is light and often humorous or satirical in tone and that usually has a happy end of the thematic conflict.

Humour is the quality of the imagination which gives to ideas fantastic turn, and tends to excite laughter mirth by ludicrous images or representations; a playful fancy.

Satire is a literary work in which human vice or folly is attacked through irony.

Comedies of Shakespeare

• The Comedy of Errors (1590)

• The Taming of the Shrew (1591)

• The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1593)

• Love’s Labours Lost (1593)

• A Midsummer Night's Dream (1594)

• The Merchant of Venice (1596)

• The Merry Wives of Windsor (1597)

• As You Like It (1598)

• Much Ado About Nothing (1599)

• Twelfth Night (1600)

 • Troilus and Cressida (1602)

 • All's Well That Ends Well (1603)

 • Measure for Measure (1604)

 • Pericles Prince of Tyre (1607)

 • Cymbeline(1609)

 • The Winter's Tale (1610)

 • The Tempest (1611)

► Discuss Chapter Two

A

1. What is a sonnet?

2. How many lines are there in a sonnet?

3. Does a rhyme pattern matter much in a sonnet? What matters much?

4. What sonnet is the typical English one?

5. Is Shakespearean language different from Modem English?

6. What is the difference between a comedy and a tragedy?

7. Can a drama be romantic? Give examples.

8. What are the species of drama?

9. What kinds of dramas did Shakespeare write?

10. Are there the same types of drama today?

B

1. What is the Renaissance?

2. Is the Renaissance different from the period of the Middle Ages? What is the difference?

3. When did the Renaissance begin?

4. What did the artists of the Renaissance take as a pattern?

5. Why is Shakespeare thought to be the leading Renaissance poet?

6. How many periods were there in Shakespeare's life?

7. Did Shakespeare write only tragedies?

8. How many comedies did Shakespeare write? In what periods did he write them?

9. Was Shakespeare only a poet and a playwright?

10. What was strange in Shakespeare's life?

Chapter Three

Restoration Literature

1660-1800

This literary period covers 140 years. Why is it called "Restoration"1? During that period much changed in England. There was the end of the absolute power of the throne. James I died and gave the crown to his son, Charles I. Oliver Cromwell and his followers made Charles I beheaded and then ruled England. When Cromwell died, England wanted to have the British monarchy again. They asked Charles II from France to become king. But the power of the throne weakened and continued to become even weaker as time went on. The crown in England today has only symbolic power and is supported by the people mainly for its tradition.

The times in England were changing quickly. Poetry was changing. The essay2 became more popular. Essays were for public. The essays that people wrote were often critical of government policies. People were becoming more and more literate. They could read and write and didn't want to be silent. The Restoration period was a lime of great intellectual growth. The Church of England was still strong, but people began to speak out against it. If life became too hard in England, they moved to the land on the other side of the ocean.

The Restoration period gets its name for the return of the English crown after a period of rule by Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell. After his death Cromwell was beheaded. This literary period is also called the Age of Enlightenment, the Neoclassic Age, the Augustan period3, and the Age of Reason. In this period thought was more important than emotion, and the literature of the day reflected that change.

The change in science and mathematics changed literature also. Poets didn't write the lyrical poetry that the Renaissance was famous for, the beautiful sonnets and songs. Poetry became mathematical, too. If we read some of Alexander Pope's heroic couplets4, we will find both rhythm and thought. Verse looks like instructions. Poetry is more easily understood. The lyric of the Renaissance poets is gone. The "private poetry"5 of that time period is more "public6 poetry". It was impersonal enough to be shouted from a mountain top. In fact poetry of the Restoration period was somewhat sterile. Lyric poetry will return to English authors, but only in the Romantic period.

Science explained natural phenomena, and there were fewer reasons to believe that storms, earthquakes, and eclipses were sent from God to punish people. People began to discover how things happened. That made them stop asking why things happened. Why was often unanswerable. They looked for explanation in science which could help them with the how. For some people, their idea of God changed, too. Some people began to feel that perhaps God set the universe into motion and then didn't want to watch things develop. They thought that perhaps He did not have day to day involvement in the lives of people. This was called deism7.

____________

1 restoration— a model or representation of the original form of a thing — восстановление; as a literary period — Эпоха Просвещения

2 an essay — a short piece of writing on a given subject

3Augustus — the first Roman emperor. Augustan — about literature, especially classical, flourishing quickly.          

4 heroic couplets — the stanzaic form of the sonnet in the early 17th century

5 private — personal, individual

6 public — open to or shared by everybody

7deism — reasoned belief in the existence of God

Lesson 9

Daniel Defoe

(1660-1731)

Daniel Defoe was born in the same year, 1660, when the Restoration period began. Along with Samuel Richardson, Defoe is considered the founder of the English novel1. Before his time stories were usually written as long poems or dramas. He produced some 200 works of non-fiction prose in addition to 2000 short essays in periodical publications.

Daniel Defoe, the son of a butcher James Foe, was born in London. He went to Morton's Academy, a school for Dissenters2 at Newton Green. He wanted to become a minister, but he changed his mind and became a hosiery merchant3 instead. In the early 1680s Defoe was a commission merchant in Cornhill but went bankrupt in 1691. In 1684 he married Mary Tuffley and they had two sons and five daughters.

In 1688 Defoe took part in the Monmouth Revolution4 and joined William III's army.

Defoe became popular with the king after the publication of his poem, "The True Born Englishman" (1701). The poem attacked those who were against having a king of foreign birth.

The publication of Defoe's "The Shortest Way with the Dissenters" (1702) upset a large number of powerful people. In the pamphlet5, Defoe, a Dissenter, was critical of the Anglican Church. He was put in the Charing Cross Pillory and then sent to Newgate Prison. While in prison, Defoe wrote a satirical ode6, "Hymn to the Pillory" (1703).The poem was sold in the streets, the people drank to his health.

In 1703 Robert Harley, the Earl of Oxford, a Tory7 government official, asked Defoe to be his spy8.

___________

1 a novel — a long prose narrative, typically having a plot that is unfolded by the actions, speech, and thoughts of the, characters

2 Dissenter — a person who refuses to accept the doctrines or usages of an established or a national church; here a Protestant who dissents from the Church of England

3 a hosiery merchant — торговец бельем

4 Monmouth — Duke of, Title of James Scott (1649-1685), pretender to the throne. The illegitimate son of Charles II, he' defeated in battle, caught, and beheaded.

5 a pamphlet — a brief on a subject of interest published in form of a booklet

6 an ode — a long lyric poem, usually of serious or meditative nature and having an elevated style and formal stanza structure

7 a Tory — a member of one of the two major British political parties, founded in 1689

8 a spy — шпион

With the help of the government, Defoe started a newspaper, The Review. The newspaper appeared three times a week. It reported on political and social topics. Defoe used a number of pen names, including Eye Witness, T. Taylor, and Andrew Morton, Merchant. His most unusual pen name was "Helio-strapolis, secretary to the Emperor of the Moon," used on his political satire "The Consolidator or Memoirs of Sundry Transactions from the World in the Moon" (1705). Defoe also wrote several pamphlets for Harley attacking the political opposition. The Whigs1 took Defoe to court and this resulted in another prison sentence.

 In 1719 Defoe started writing fiction2. His novels are: "Robinson Crusoe" (1719), "Captain Singleton" (1720), "Journal of the Plague Year" (1722), "Captain Jack" (1722), "Moll Flanders" (1722) and "Roxana" (1724). Defoe was one of the first to write stories about real characters in realistic situations using simple prose3. At first Defoe had troubles in finding a publisher for his book "Robinson Crusoe" and got £104 for the manuscript. Defoe created a realistic5 novel which was different from all created before. But he also gave a dream of building a private kingdom, a self-made Utopia6.

Defoe also wrote a three-volume travel book, "Tour Through the Whole Island of Great Britain" (1724-27). Other non-fiction books are "The Complete English Tradesman" (1726) and "London the Most Flourishing City in the Universe" (1728). Defoe published over 560 books and pamphlets and is thought to be the founder of British journalism7. He was phenomenally hardworking and produced in his last years also works about the supernatural, "The Political History of the Devil" (1726) and "An Essay on the History and Reality of Apparitions" (1727). He died on April 26, 1731, at his house in Rope-maker's Alley, Moorfields.

The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe

The name of the first edition of Defoe's work was "The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe of York, Mariner, Who Lived Eight and Twenty Years, All Alone in an Un-inhabited Island on the Coast; of America, near the Mouth of the Great River of,| Oronoque; Having Been Cast on Shore by Shipwreck, Wherein All the Men Perished but Himself. With an Account How He Was at Last as Strangely Deliver'd by Pirates. Written by Himself."

Nowadays the Special Collections Library has more than 1,700 editions, translations and imitations of Defoe's book.

"Robinson Crusoe" is not just one of the books of children's literature. It is a prototype8 of the novel. It is a discussion on basic human needs, social organizations, religious opinions and the meeting of a "civilized" man with "primitive cultures".

Robinson Crusoe, of course, wasn't a real person. Daniel Defoe certainly never was on a "desert island".

But the idea of "Robinson Crusoe" came from a true story. In 1704, Alexander Selkirk was a sailor on a ship. He quarreled with Captain William Dampier.

_________

1 a Whig — a member of the 18th—19th-century British political party that was opposed to the Tories

2 fiction— a literary work produced by imagination and not based on facts

3 prose — ordinary speech or writing, without metrical structure

4 £ — a pound, the basic monetary unit of the United Kingdom, worth 20 shillings or 240 old pence before the decimalization of 1971. Also called pound sterling — фунт стерлингов.

5 realism — showing objects, actions or social conditions as they actually are, without idealization or presentation in abstract form

6 Utopia— an ideally perfect place, especially in its social, political, and moral aspects                                

7 journalism — the style of writing characteristic of material in newspapers and magazines, consisting of direct show of facts or events with little analysis or interpretation

8 prototype — the first thing or being of its kind, a pattern for imitation

Selkirk asked the Captain to put him off the ship on the island of Juan Femandez. At that time it had no people on it. He stayed there until 1709. A ship under the command of Captain Rogers with Dampier as a pilot found him and took him off the island. Both captain and pilot were surprised to Find Selkirk alive.

Defoe added a lot to Selkirk's life story. And it makes the story of "Robinson Crusoe" a favourite one with young readers.

The idea of being left alone on an island gives many adventurous themes for films and TV programmes.

Travellers try to prove the existence of the real island on which the story of Robinson Crusoe was based. Juan Fernandez is an island off the coast of Chile. It is the most likely candidate. Explorers there said that they have found Crusoe's cave and even Friday's footsteps on the beach.

Robinson Crusoe is a very popular figure in advertising, comics and cartoons. There are many film versions of the famous novel about Robinson Crusoe.

► Discuss Chapter Three

A

1. What is an essay?

2. Is the pamphlet the same as the satirical ode?

3. Does fiction literature exist nowadays?

4. Was literature of the Restoration period different from that of the Renaissance?

5. What is realism? Can it be found in literature?

6. Is journalism a genre of literature?

7. Can poetry be mathematical?

8. What was the aim of literature in the Restoration period?

9. What is the difference between poetry and prose?

10. Can poetry be satirical?

B

1. What are the synonyms of the Restoration?

a) Neoclassic and neo-Renaissance

b) Neoclassic and the Age of Reason

c) the Augustan period

d) a and b

e) b and с

2. Why did the English invite Charles II from France?

3. Was Oliver Cromwell a king?

4. Why did people want to restore monarchy in Britain?

5. What were the two political parties in Britain at that period?

6. Why did people begin reading more?                

7. In what way did science change people's attitude to God?|

8.  Did literature help science or vice versa?

9. Who were the main writers of this period?

10. Was this period positive or negative?

Choose the right answers about Defoe's life.

1. Daniel Defoe was ____.

a) a real name

b) a pseudonym

c) a changed name

2. Daniel Defoe was "the father of”_____.

a) the tale

b) the novel

c) the poem

3. Defoe became popular with the king after ____.

a) the novel "The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe"

b) his satirical essays

c) the poem "The True Воrn Englishman"

4. Defoe was put in prison because ____.

a) he was a bankrupt

b) he stole a lot of money

c) he wrote a political pamphlet

5. Defoe got _____.

 a) 100 dollars

 b) 100,000 pounds

 c) 10 pounds ($20) for the manuscript of "Robinson Crusoe"

6. What can we associate Defoe's name with? (More than one point.)

 a) ballads

 b) pamphlets

 c) novels

 d) sonnets

 e) essays

 f) tales

Chapter Four

Pre-Romantic Poetry

The French Revolution1 had a great effect on the British governmental policy. The authors of this period showed interest in the internal life of the individual as well as in human rights. It was an escape from the troubled of the day.

In Britain at this time, only the aristocracy and landlords had voice in the ruling of the country. Middle-class men did not get any rights. The events in France had real resonance for the British upper classes. The struggle to define the modem individual was discursive and literal,

The authors started to show the private feelings, charity, education, sympathy, genius, honour, and even the use of the reason. These points became the code of conservative and progressive thinkers.

The English Romantic poets of this period are the "Big Six": Blake, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Shelley, Byron and Keats. These authors were doing something radically new to save poetry from the old-fashioned traditions of the eighteenth century. In reality, they took a great deal of the age of sensibility.

________

1 French Revolution — the revolution in France against the Bourbons in 1789-1799

These poets focused on the human imagination. They were interested in the relations between the individual mind and the natural world. These Romantic poets tried to answer the following questions: Do we create meaning? Is the relationship symbiotic or parasitic? Can we see things as they are? Or does every spectator deform the world simply by looking at it?

These poets wanted to describe the human mind without any relation to time and politics. They said that the imagination and the world of feeling could create the world of meaning that changed history. They analyzed the inward, trying to displace politics into the analysis of the individual.

These poets demonstrated a strong interest in Nature and the natural world.

Lesson 10

Mother Goose's Nursery Rhymes

Who was Mother Goose? Many she's and he's — different writers — in different times. In 1697 Charles Perrault1 used this phrase in his collection of eight fairy tales which included "The Sleeping Beauty," "Little Red Riding Hood," "Cinderella," "Bluebeard", and others. The title of the book was (translated from French) "Histories and Tales of Long Ago, with Morals." The first page showed an old woman spinning and telling stories and there were the words "Contes de ma Mere 1'Oye" (Tales of My Mother the Goose) below the picture.

The fact is that "Mother Goose" rhymes are different nursery rhymes passed down in folklore fashion (some even written by famous authors).

So, origin of Mother Goose is not clear, yet, we at know that "Mother Goose" is — somehow — real.

Children love nursery rhymes. They know the rhymes by heart and sing them, because many rhymes were set to simple melodies.

Nursery rhymes can be used to teach important information in an entertaining way:

• counting

• ABC

• body parts

• new words

Each nursery rhyme is a little story in itself. Traditionally, nursery rhymes are for children to explore their age questions. Many of these rhymes help children not to be afraid about losing things, getting into trouble or getting hurt.

Many collections have nice illustrations full of details which explore the rhyme's theme. There are many editions of Mother Goose's Rhymes with different illustrators of the same characters. Fine artists all have their own ways illustrating the rhymes.

The rhymes can be classified according to the following topics interesting for children:

 ● Domestic animals and other beasts

 ● Bedtime

 ● Folks and things they do

 ● Food

 ● Holidays and seasons

 ● Other times, other lands

__________

Charles Perrault (1628-1703) – a French writer

● Places to go

● Riddle rhymes

● Rounds and repeaters

● Songs

● Weather and things around us

Read some rhymes and compare the imitation of the sounds the animals produce. Are they different or alike in Russian and English?

Baa Baa Black Sheep

Baa baa,

Black Sheep,

Have you any wool?

Yes sir, yes sir,

Three bags full:

One for my master,

One for my dame,

And one for the little boy

That lives in the lane!

                   Hey Diddle Diddle1

Hey diddle diddle,

The cat and the fiddle,

The cow jumped

over the moon,

The little dog laughed

to see such sport,

And the dish ran

away with the spoon.

        Little Boy Blue

Little Boy Blue, come blow your horn,

The sheep's in the meadow, the cow's in the corn.

Where's the little boy who looks after the sheep?

Under the haystack, fast asleep.

Will you wake him? No, not I,

For if I do, he's sure to cry.

___________

1Hey diddle diddle – Тра – ля - ля

Little Miss Muffet

Little Miss Muffet, sat on a tuffet,

Eating her curds and whey;

Along came a spider, who sat down beside her

And frightened Miss Muffet away.

                                   Mary Had A Little Lamb

Mary had a little lamb,

little lamb,

little lamb.

Mary had a little lamb,

Its fleece was white as snow.

Everywhere that Mary went,

Mary went,

Mary went.

Everywhere that Mary went,

The lamb was sure to go.

It followed her to school one day,

school one day,

school one day.

  It followed her to school one day,

  Which was against the rules.

  It made the children laugh and play,

  laugh and play,

  laugh and play.

  It made the children laugh and play,

  To see a lamb at school.

Read the translation of this poem.

У Мэри был ягненок

У Мэри был ягненок,

Маленький такой,

Ягнёнок как котенок,

Беленький, смешной.

Мэри, милую подружку

Никуда не отпускал.

Он за нею, он за Мэри

Всюду, всюду поспевал.

В школу наш дружок хотел,

ан, нет, туда нельзя!

Он за Мэри, не спеша,

Пришел и рядом сел.

Теперь веселью нет конца!

Ура! Ура! Ура!

Все книжки прочь,

  У нас с утра — игра, игра, игра!

Old MacDonald Had a Farm

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O.

And on his farm he had a cow, E-I-E-I-O.

With a moo, moo here and a moo, moo there,

Here a moo, there a moo,

Everywhere a moo-moo,

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O.

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O

And on his farm he had a pig, E-I-E-I-O

With an oink, oink here and an oink, oink there

Here an oink, there an oink,

Everywhere an oink-oink;

With a moo-moo here and a moo-moo there,

Here a moo, there a moo,

Everywhere a moo-moo,

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O.

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O

And on his farm he had a horse, E-I-E-I-O

With a neigh, neigh here and a neigh, neigh there

Here a neigh, there a neigh,

Everywhere a neigh, neigh;

With an oink, oink here and an oink, oink there

Here an oink, there an oink,

Everywhere an oink-oink;

With a moo-moo here and a moo-moo there,

Here a moo, there a moo,

Everywhere a moo-moo,

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O.

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O

And on his farm he had some sheep, E-I-E-I-O

With a baa, baa here and a baa, baa there

Here a baa, there a baa,

Everywhere a baa, baa;

With a neigh, neigh here and a neigh, neigh there

Here a neigh, there a neigh,

Everywhere a neigh, neigh;

With an oink, oink here and an oink, oink there

Here an oink, there an oink,

Everywhere an oink-oink;

With a moo-moo here and a moo-moo there,

Here a moo, there a moo,

Everywhere a moo-moo,

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O.

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O

And on his farm he had a chicken, E-I-E-I-O

With a brawk, brawk here and a brawk, brawk there

Here a brawk, there a brawk,

Everywhere a brawk, brawk;

With a baa, baa here and a baa, baa there

Here a baa, there a baa,

Everywhere a baa, baa;

With a neigh, neigh here and a neigh, neigh there

Here a neigh, there a neigh,

Everywhere a neigh, neigh;

With an oink, oink here and an oink, oink there

Here an oink, there an oink,

Everywhere an oink-oink;

With a moo-moo here and a moo-moo there,

Here a moo, there a moo,

Everywhere a moo-moo,

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O.

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O

And on his farm he had a duck, E-I-E-I-O

With a quack, quack here and a quack, quack there

Here a quack, there a quack,

Everywhere a quack, quack;

With a brawk, brawk here and a brawk, brawk there

Here a brawk, there a brawk,

Everywhere a brawk, brawk;

With a baa, baa here and a baa, baa there

Here a baa, there a baa,

Everywhere a baa, baa;

With a neigh, neigh here and a neigh, neigh there

Here a neigh, there a neigh,

Everywhere a neigh, neigh;

With an oink, oink here and an oink, oink there

Here an oink, there an oink,

Everywhere an oink-oink;

With a moo-moo here and a moo-moo there,

Here a moo, there a moo,

Everywhere a moo-moo,

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O.

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O

And on his farm he had a goose, E-I-E-I-O

With gabble, gabble here and gabble, gabble there

Here gabble, there gabble,

Everywhere a gabble, gabble;

With a quack, quack here and a quack, quack there

Here a quack, there a quack,

Everywhere a quack, quack;

With a brawk, brawk here and a brawk, brawk there

Here a brawk, there a brawk,

Everywhere a brawk, brawk;

With a baa, baa here and a baa, baa there

Here a baa, there a baa,

Everywhere a baa, baa;

With a neigh, neigh here and a neigh, neigh there

Here a neigh, there a neigh,

Everywhere a neigh, neigh;

With an oink, oink here and an oink, oink there

Here an oink, there an oink,

Everywhere an oink-oink;

With a moo-moo here and a moo-moo there,

Here a moo, there a moo,

Everywhere a moo-moo,

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O.

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O

And on his farm he had a dog, E-I-E-I-O

With a bow wow here and a bow wow there

Here a bow, there a wow,

Everywhere a bow wow;

With a gabble, gabble here and a gabble, gabble there

Here a gabble, there a gabble,

Everywhere a gabble, gabble;

With a quack, quack here and a quack, quack there

Here a quack, there a quack,

Everywhere a quack, quack;

With a brawk, brawk here and a brawk, brawk there

Here a brawk, there a brawk,

Everywhere a brawk, brawk;

With a baa, baa here and a baa, baa there

Here a baa, there a baa,

Everywhere a baa, baa;

With a neigh, neigh here and a neigh, neigh there

Here a neigh, there a neigh,

Everywhere a neigh, neigh;

With an oink, oink here and an oink, oink there

 Here an oink, there an oink,

Everywhere an oink-oink;

With a moo-moo here and a moo-moo there,

Here a moo, there a moo,

Everywhere a moo-moo,

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O.

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O

And on his farm he had a cat, E-I-E-I-O

With a meow, meow here and a meow, meow there

Here a meow, there a meow,

Everywhere a meow, meow;

With a bow wow here and a bow wow there

Here a bow, there a wow,

Everywhere a bow wow;

With a gabble, gabble here and a gabble, gabble there

Here a gabble, there a gabble,

Everywhere a gabble, gabble;

With a quack, quack here and a quack, quack there

Here a quack, there a quack,

Everywhere a quack, quack;

With a brawk, brawk here and a brawk, brawk there

Here a brawk, there a brawk,

Everywhere a brawk, brawk;

With a baa, baa here and a baa, baa there

Here a baa, there a baa,

Everywhere a baa, baa;

With a neigh, neigh here and a neigh, neigh there

Here a neigh, there a neigh,

 Everywhere a neigh, neigh;

With an oink, oink here and an oink, oink there

Here an oink, there an oink,

Everywhere an oink-oink;

With a moo-moo here and a moo-moo there,

Here a moo, there a moo,

Everywhere a moo-moo,

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O.

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O

And on his farm he had a mouse, E-I-E-I-O

With an eek, eek here and an eek, eek there

Here an eek, there an eek,

Everywhere an eek, eek;

With a meow, meow here and a meow, meow there

Here a meow, there a meow,

Everywhere a meow, meow;

With a bow wow here and a bow wow there

Here a bow, there a wow,

Everywhere a bow wow;

With a gabble, gabble here and a gabble, gabble there

Here a gabble, there a gabble,

Everywhere a gabble, gabble;

With a quack, quack here and a quack, quack there

Here a quack, there a quack,

Everywhere a quack, quack;

With a brawk, brawk here and a brawk, brawk there

Here a brawk, there a brawk,

Everywhere a brawk, brawk;

With a baa, baa here and a baa, baa there

Here a baa, there a baa,

Everywhere a baa, baa;

With a neigh, neigh here and a neigh, neigh there

Here a neigh, there a neigh,

Everywhere a neigh, neigh;

With an oink, oink here and an oink, oink there

Here an oink, there an oink,

Everywhere an oink-oink;

With a moo-moo here and a moo-moo there,

Here a moo, there a moo,

Everywhere a moo-moo,

Old MacDonald had a farm, E-I-E-I-O.